زود پز

پختن مواد غذایی ممکن است در یک ظرف در بسته و تحت فشار به نام زودپَز انجام شود. این روش، سرعت پخت را افزایش می‌دهد و ویتامین‌های غذا نیز بهتر در آن باقی می‌مانند.[۱]

بدنه دیگ زودپز را از جنس فولاد ضدزنگ یا آلیاژی از آلومینیوم می‌سازند. روی درپوش این وسیله هم یک دریچه اطمینان وجود دارد. وقتی فشار بخار آب به حدی می‌رسد که ظرف نمی‌تواند آن را تحمل کند، این دریچه باز می‌شود تا بخار آب از آن خارج شود. در محل اتصال درپوش به بدنه، حلقه‌ای لاستیکی وجود دارد که از خارج شدن بخار آب جلوگیری می‌کند.[۲]

مخترع دیگ زودپز فیزیکدانی فرانسوی بود به نام دنیس پاپن[۳] که این گونه دیگ را در سال ۱۶۷۹ اختراع کرد. نخستین زودپزهای آلومینیومی در سال ۱۹۱۵ ساخته شدند و در سال ۱۹۳۷ شخصی به نام آلفرد فیشلر[۴] زودپز کوچکی را برای مصرف در آشپزخانه‌های نوین به بازار آورد.[۵]

کارکرد



دریچه اطمینان زودپزها.
هر مایعی در یک دمای خاص شروع به جوشیدن می‌کند و این دما که به دمای جوش معروف است، برای آب ۱۰۰ درجه سانتی گراد است. اما نقطه جوش مایعات با بالارفتن فشار افزایش و با پایین آمدن فشار کاهش می‌یابد و در واقع کارآیی اصلی زودپز هم به دلیل همین خاصیت مایعات است. وقتی غذا را همراه مقداری آب در داخل ظرف قرار می‌دهیم و شروع به حرارت دادن آن می‌کنیم، آب شروع به جوشیدن و بخار شدن می‌کند. بخار آب بتدریج در داخل ظرف افزایش می‌یابد و باعث بالا رفتن فشار داخل ظرف می‌شود. به این ترتیب، نقطه جوش آب با افزایش فشار بالا می‌رود و به ۱۳۰ درجه سانتی‌گراد می‌رسد.[۶]

مدت پخت
نمونه‌هایی از مدت پخت خوراک با زودپز[۷]:

خوراک زمان پخت،
بر حسب دقیقه
سیب زمینی ۷
چغندر ۳۵
لوبیا ۴
کاسنی ۳
بخار دادن گوشت ۵۵
این یک نوشتار خُرد پیرامون آشپزی است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.


منابع

↑ مردمان، بازدید: مارس ۲۰۰۹
↑ مخصوص، بازدید: مارس ۲۰۰۹.
↑ Denis Papin
↑ Alfred Vischler
↑ Wikipedia-bijdragers, "Hogedrukpan," Wikipedia, de vrije encyclopedie, (accessed maart 24, 2009).
↑ مخصوص، بازدید: مارس ۲۰۰۹.
↑ Wikipedia-bijdragers, "Hogedrukpan," Wikipedia, de vrije encyclopedie, (accessed maart 24, 2009).
[نهفتن]
ن • ب • و
روش‌های پخت‌وپز
خشک
کباب کردن • بو دادن • نمک‌داغ کردن • شن‌داغ کردن • باربیکیو
با آب
آب‌پز کردن • آب‌پزی ملایم • بخارپزی • دم کردن • فرپزی و شعله‌پزی • خورشتی • جوشاندن • نیم‌جوش • پخت ملایم • نان‌پزی و شیرینی‌پزی
با روغن
سرخ کردن • تفت دادن • روغن‌پزی • تابه‌پزی • ته‌دیگ
با دستگاه
زودپز • آرام‌پز • مایکروویو • سیخ‌گردان کردن • زودپز روغنی • کیسه‌پزی • پخت گرمابی • طبخ در سفال • صندوق طبخ • نیم‌پز کردن با آب گرم
بدون گرما
دود دادن • ترشی انداختن • تخمیر
رده‌های صفحه: روش‌های پخت فشار پخت و پز اختراع‌های فرانسویان ظرف‌ها
از ویکی پدیا
قس:
Pressure cooking is a method of cooking in a sealed vessel that does not permit air or liquids to escape below a preset pressure. Since the boiling point of water increases as the pressure rises, the pressure built up inside the vessel allows the liquid to rise to a higher temperature before boiling.
Pressure is created at the beginning by boiling a liquid, such as water or broth, inside the closed pressure cooker and the trapped steam increases the internal pressure and temperature. This causes wet steam (or "saturated steam") to be forced through the food and results in faster cooking times compared to conventional cooking methods. Afterwards, the pressure is slowly released so that the vessel can be safely opened.
Pressure cookers may be referred to by several other names. An early pressure cooker, called a steam digester, was invented by Denis Papin, a French physicist, in 1679. Large pressure cookers are often called pressure canners in the United States because of their capacity to hold jars used in canning. A version of a pressure cooker used by laboratories and hospitals to sterilize objects is known as an autoclave. In the food industry, pressure cookers are often referred to as retorts or "canning retorts".
Pressure cooking is often used to simulate the effects of long braising or simmering in shorter periods of time.
Contents [show]
[edit]History

The first experiment to cook under pressure was done by French physicist Denis Papin in 1679, better known for his studies on steam, when he invented the digesteur in an attempt to reduce the cooking time of food. This hermetic cooker used steam pressure to increase the water's boiling point, thus resulting in a much quicker cooking.
In 1681, Denis Papin presented his invention to the Royal Society of London, but his invention was left as another scientific study. It granted him permission to become a member of the society in his own right.
By 1864 Georg Gutbrod of Stuttgart was manufacturing pressure cookers made of tinned cast iron.


Pressure cooker manufactured by Georg Gutbrod, Stuttgart, about 1864
In 1919, the first patent ever was granted in Spain to Jose Alix Martínez from Zaragoza, of what was called olla exprés ("express cooking pot") or pressure cooker, under the 71143 patent number of the Boletín Oficial de la Propiedad Industrial in the 798 issue on the 16 of November of 1919, page 1480.
Alfred Vischler waited until 1938 to present his invention called Flex-Seal Speed Cooker in New York. Even though Vischler's idea was a good one, the product that caught the attention of housewives was the one called Presto, that appeared in 1939 in World Trade Fair in New York.
[edit]Design

Pressure cookers are generally made of aluminum or stainless steel. The former may be stamped and buffed or anodized, but this metal is unsuitable for the dishwasher. Higher quality stainless steel pressure cookers are made with heavy, three-ply, or copper-clad bottoms (heat spreader) for uniform heating, since stainless steel has lower thermal conductivity. Most modern units are dishwasher safe, although some manufacturers may recommend washing by hand. Some pressure cookers have a non-stick interior.
In most models, a gasket or sealing ring forms a gas-tight seal which does not allow air or steam to escape between the pot and the lid; other more expensive models feature a metal-to-metal seal. Normally, the only way the steam can escape is through a regulator on the lid when the pressure has built up. If the regulator becomes blocked, a safety valve is provided as a backup escape route for steam. The simplest safety valve is a loose-fitting rubber plug in the lid, held in place by steam pressure. If the pressure exceeds design limits, the plug pops out of its seat.
To seal the gasket, some pressure cookers have a lid lock with flanges, similar to a bayonet-style lens mount, that works by placing the lid on the pot and twisting it about 30° to lock it in place. Contemporary designs of this style of cooker also have a pressure-activated interlock mechanism that prevents the lid from being removed while the cooker is pressurized.
Other cookers, particularly the larger types used for home canning, have oval, over-sized lids. With these, since the lid is larger than the opening in the top of the pressure cooker, one inserts the lid at an angle, then turns the lid to align it with pot opening. A spring arrangement straddles the top of the cooker and holds the lid in place. When cooking, the pressurized steam inside keeps the lid tightly in place, preventing accidental removal.
Because of the forces they have to withstand, pressure cookers are usually heavier than normal pots of similar size.
[edit]Generations

There are three generations of pressure cookers:
[edit]First generation


Super cocotte décor SEB, 1973. Aluminium body, polyamide lacquered with an embossed aluminium lid and a stainless steel stirrup. On display at the Musée gallo-romain de Fourvière, Lyon. 18/10.
Also known as "old type" pressure cookers, these operate with a weight-modified or "jiggly" valve which release pressure during operation. They are very loud because the weight-modified valve operates under the same principle as a piston in a steam engine. They often offer only one pressure level - with the exception of some newer "old style" pressure cookers which allow the operator to change the weight of the weight-modified valve.
[edit]Second generation
Also known as "new" or "latest generation" pressure cookers, these operate with a spring-loaded valve which is often hidden from view in a proprietary mechanism. Some of these pressure cookers do not release any steam vapour during operation, but only when the pan is opened, or as a safety precaution if the heat source has not been reduced enough when the pan reaches the required cooking pressure. Two or more pressure settings are also a mark of this generation. Some second generation pressure cookers use a rising indicator with marks to show the pressure level; others use a dial which the operator can advance by a few clicks (which adjusts a spring underneath) in order to change the pressure setting or release the pressure; steam vapour is released during operation.
[edit]Electric pressure cookers
Called "third generation" pressure cookers by their manufacturers, these include an electric heat source which is automatically regulated to maintain the operating pressure. They also include a spring-loaded valve as described above. Two or more pressure settings are also available on this type of pressure cooker. However, this pressure cooker type cannot be opened with the cold water quick-release method and should be operated with caution when releasing vapour through the valve, especially when cooking foaming foods and liquids (lentils, beans, grains, milk, gravy, etc.).
[edit]Pressure settings

Most pressure cookers have a working pressure setting of 15 psi, which equates to 103 kPa, 1.03 bar[1] or 1 kg per square cm over the existing atmospheric pressure, the standard determined by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1917. At this pressure boost relative to sea-level atmospheric pressure, water boils at 121 °C (250 °F) (refer to the vapour pressure of water page).
The higher temperature causes the food to cook faster; cooking times can typically be reduced to 1/3 of the time for conventional cooking methods.[2] The actual cooking time also depends on the pressure release method used after timing (read the "Pressure release methods" section on this page) and on the thickness of the food, since thicker foods take longer to cook. Meat - and some other foods like sponge puddings, Christmas puddings etc. - are timed according to their weight. Frozen foods need extra cooking time to allow for thawing.
When pressure cooking at 15 psi, approximate cooking times are as follows (assumes the pressure is released immediately after timing and not left to drop naturally): shredded cabbage, one minute; fresh green beans, three minutes.
If the pressure is allowed to drop slowly after timing (see "Pressure release methods" on this page), cooking times are even shorter. Examples of approximate cooking times using this method include: potatoes, six minutes (potatoes suitable for boiling or steaming will not break up if the pressure is left to drop slowly after timing), a whole chicken, which easily fits into all but small pressure cookers, cooks in about twenty minutes. Stews can be cooked in under one hour, compared to several hours in a slow cooker or oven.
Some pressure cookers have a lower maximum pressure than the industry standard 15 psi, or can be adjusted to different maximum pressures for some recipes; cooking times will increase or decrease accordingly. This is often done by having different regulator weights or different pressure settings. If the pressure cooker is not capable of cooking at the industry standard 15 psi (the manufacturer's instruction booklet should state the maximum operating pressure) and the recipe is intended for cooking at 15 psi, the cooking time will need to be extended, but this can overcook food. Increasing the heat under pressure cookers designed for pressures below 15 psi will not make the food cook faster[2] — it will only waste energy, possibly spoil food, increase the risk of boiling dry and shorten the usable life of the gasket and other rubber parts. This is no substitute for pressure cookers which cannot operate at 15 psi, which is the pressure setting that most recipes require and assume, since 15 psi became the standard for pressure cookers in 1917.
[edit]Operation

The food to be cooked is placed in the pressure cooker along with a small amount of water or other liquid, e.g., stock required for the recipe. Food is either cooked in the liquid or placed above the liquid to be cooked by steam; the latter method prevents the transfer of flavours from the liquid. Steaming is done by using a suitable insert such as a steamer basket with a support trivet. The lid is closed, the pressure setting selected and the pressure cooker is then placed on a heat source, e.g., a stove, at the highest heat (if using a pressure cooker with a weight, the weight is placed over the steam vent pipe when steam is being emitted, as this ensures the air inside has escaped) until the cooker reaches full pressure, after which the heat is lowered to maintain pressure; the timing specified in the recipe begins at this point. It takes several minutes before the pressure cooker reaches the selected pressure level. It can take as long as 10 minutes, depending on: the quantity of food, the temperature of the food (cold or frozen food delays pressurisation), the amount of liquid and the size of the pressure cooker.
The newer generation pressure cookers, without weights, expel the air from inside before reaching full pressure. A common mistake is for the user to start timing when the pop-up indicator rises, which happens when there is the slightest increase in pressure, instead of waiting for the cooker to first reach the selected pressure level. Some pressure cookers have markers on the pop-up indicator which show the pressure level, but normally the pop-up indicator just shows that the cooker has pressure inside, which is not a reliable means of showing that the cooker has reached its selected pressure. This indicator also acts as an interlock to prevent the lid from being opened as long as there is any pressure inside.
As the internal temperature rises, the pressure also rises until it reaches the design gauge pressure. In some models, a relief valve then opens, releasing steam in order to prevent the pressure from rising any further. In other models, the pressure regulator weight begins levitating on its nozzle, allowing excess steam to escape. At this stage, the heat source should be reduced, as now only enough heat is required to maintain pressure.[2] If the heat source is too high, costly energy is wasted, too much of the liquid may be released in order to maintain the nominal pressure, and the life of the gasket/sealing ring may be reduced by wear caused by this extra heat. On the other hand, if the heat source is set too low, the food may be undercooked or pressure may be lost. As a rough guide, medium heat is the highest setting required on any domestic stove to maintain the pressure level throughout cooking time.
Recipes for foods using raising agents, e.g. steamed puddings, call for gentle pre-steaming without pressure in order to activate the raising agents prior to cooking to achieve a light and fluffy texture. The water must bubble gently when pre-steaming to ensure that enough water will be available for the entire pressure cooking time, otherwise the pan will boil dry. If pre-steaming is omitted, the result is a heavy and stodgy texture.
Small containers can be used in a pressure cooker, such as plastic pudding containers, provided the containers can withstand temperatures of 130 °C or 266 °F and not placed directly on the interior base. A lid for the container may be used, provided the lid allows steam to come into contact with the food and the lid is securely fitted e.g. foil or greaseproof paper, pleated in the centre and tied securely with string. Cracked containers are not suitable. Cooking time is longer when using covered containers, since the food is not in direct contact with the steam and containers which are not made of metal are poorer heat conductors.
The flavour of some foods, such as meat and onions, can be improved by gently cooking with a little cooking oil in the open pressure cooker over medium heat (unless the manufacturer advises against this) before pressure cooking. The pressure cooker should be allowed to cool briefly before adding liquid, otherwise some of the liquid will evaporate instantly and may leave insufficient liquid for the entire cooking time.
Since pressure cooking depends on the production of steam and always requires liquid, the process cannot easily be used for methods of cooking that produce little steam, such as roasting, pan frying or deep frying. However, the large chicken restaurant chain KFC uses a combination of pressure cooking and frying, using special pressure fryers made for this purpose (see the pressure frying article) where the chicken juices supply the water. Cooking time is reduced substantially, but the breading texture is much softer (less crispy) than with deep-fried chicken since moisture remains in the breading. Thick sauces will not contain enough liquid to vaporize and create pressure, so they will likely burn onto the interior base of the pressure cooker after prolonged heating; therefore, sauces should be thickened after pressure cooking
[edit]Pressure release methods

After cooking, there are three ways of releasing the pressure, either quickly or slowly, before the lid can be opened. Recipes for pressure cookers state which release method is required at the end of the cooking time for proper results—failure to follow the recommendation results in food that is either under-cooked or over-cooked.
To avoid opening the pressure cooker too often when cooking vegetables with varying cooking times, those which take longer to cook can be cut into smaller pieces and those which cook faster can be cut into thicker pieces.[2]
[edit]Cold water quick release
This method is the fastest way of releasing pressure with portable pressure cookers (unless the manufacturer advises against cold water release). It involves running cold tap water over the pressure cooker, avoiding the steam vent or any other valves. It is most suitable for foods with short cooking times and takes only about 20 seconds for the cooker to cool down enough so that the pressure falls and it can be safely opened. This method is not suitable for electric pressure cookers.
[edit]Manual, normal, regular, or automatic release
Sometimes called "Quick Release", but not to be confused with the cold water release, this method involves the evacuation of vapor quickly by lifting (or removing) the valve, pushing a button or turning a dial. It is most suitable for interrupted cooking to add food which cooks faster than what is already in the cooker. For example, since meat takes longer to cook than vegetables, for stews it is necessary to add the vegetables later so that they will cook only for the last few minutes. This release method does not cool down the pressure cooker like the cold water release method. Care must be taken when releasing the steam to avoid scalding injury. This release method is not suitable for foods which foam and froth during cooking, as the hot contents could spray outwards from the pressure being released from the steam vent. This release method takes about two minutes to release the pressure before the lid can be opened.
[edit]Natural release
The natural release method allows the pressure to drop slowly; this is achieved by removing the pressure cooker from the heat source and the pressure lowers without any further action. It takes about 10 to 15 minutes (maybe longer) before all the pressure has gone. This method is recommended for foods which foam and froth during cooking, such as rice or pasta, legumes or for recipes such as steamed puddings with raising agents. The texture and tenderness of meat cooked in a pressure cooker may be improved by using the natural release method.[2] The natural release method finishes cooking foods e.g. potatoes with skins (to keep the skins intact) or recipes which have longer cooking times, because the inside of the pressure cooker stays hot. This method is not recommended for foods which require very short cooking times because the food will be overcooked. If using this release method for foods such as potatoes, the cooking time is reduced compared to the other two release methods; on the other hand, if the natural release method is not used, the cooking time will need to be increased by a few minutes to compensate.
[edit]Advantages

Foods cook much faster with pressure cooking than with other methods (except for small quantities in microwave ovens), and require much less water than boiling, so dishes can be ready sooner. Less energy is required than when boiling, steaming, or oven cooking. Since less water or liquid has to be heated, the foods reaches its cooking temperature faster.
Several foods can be cooked together in the pressure cooker, either for the same amount of time or added later and timed accordingly.[2] Manufacturers provide steamer baskets to allow more foods to be cooked together inside the pressure cooker. However, the pressure cooker should never be filled to more than 2/3 its interior height with solid food, 1/2 full for liquids and foods that foam and froth, e.g., rice, pasta etc., and no more than 1/3 full for pulses e.g. lentils.[3] A tablespoon of cooking oil can be added to minimise foaming.[4]p. 262
The food is cooked at a temperature above the normal boiling point of water, killing most micro-organisms. A pressure cooker can also be used as an effective sterilizer, for jam pots and glass baby bottles, for example, or for water while camping.
It is not necessary to immerse food in water: The minimum quantity of water or liquid used in the recipe to keep the pressure cooker filled with steam is sufficient. Because of this, vitamins and minerals are not leached (dissolved) away by water, as they would be if food were boiled in large amounts of water. Due to the shorter cooking time, vitamins are preserved relatively well during pressure cooking.[5]
The pressure cooker speeds cooking considerably at high altitudes, where the low atmospheric pressure otherwise reduces the boiling point of water, which reduces water's effectiveness for cooking or preparing hot drinks.
[edit]Disadvantages

Pressure cookers are considerably more expensive than conventional saucepans of the same size. The additional gasket requires special care when cleaning, unlike a standard lid for a saucepan. The gasket/sealing ring must be replaced if there are any signs of wear. If the gasket cannot provide an airtight seal and steam leaks around the lid, even when fitted properly, the pressure cooker will not build up pressure inside. The gasket should not be allowed to dry out as this makes it harder to open and close the lid; however, the gasket can be smeared with cooking oil to alleviate this.
In order to inspect the progress of cooking, the cooking process needs to be halted and the cooker opened, which takes time. With a conventional saucepan, this can be done in a matter of seconds by removing the lid, or by visual inspection if cooking without the lid on.
The risk of scalding from escaping steam is greater with a pressure cooker, as the temperature is above the 100 degrees Celsius at which water boils at sea level in conventional cooking.
The increased weight of conventional pressure cookers makes them unsuitable for applications where saving weight is a priority, such as camping. However, small, lightweight pressure cookers are available for mountain climbers (see Use at high altitudes).
A minimum quantity of liquid is required to create and maintain pressure, as indicated in the manufacturer's instruction manual, with more liquid required for longer cooking times. This is not desirable for food requiring less liquid. However, recipes and books for pressure cookers take this into account.
[edit]Safety features

Early pressure cookers equipped with only a primary safety valve were at risk of explosion if poorly maintained, such as if food residues contaminate the release valve. On modern pressure cookers, food residues blocking the steam vent or the liquid boiling dry will trigger additional safety devices. In any case when excess pressure is released by a safety mechanism, debris of the food being cooked may also be ejected.
Modern pressure cookers typically have two or three redundant safety valves as well as some additional safety features, such as an interlock lid that prevents the user from opening the lid as long as the internal pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure. If any of the safety mechanisms are not correctly in place, the cooker will not pressurize the contents. Pressure cookers should be operated only after reading the instruction manual, as each model differs slightly as to how the safety mechanisms are implemented, and they should be regularly maintained in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
For first generation pressure cookers with a weighted valve or "jiggler", the primary safety valve or regulator usually takes the form of a weighted stopper, commonly called "the rocker," or "vent weight". This weighted stopper is lifted by the steam pressure, allowing excess pressure to be relieved. There is a backup pressure release mechanism that may employ any of several different techniques to release pressure quickly if the primary pressure release mechanism fails (for example, if food jams the steam discharge path). One such method is in the form of a hole in the lid blocked by a plug of low melting point alloy and another is a rubber grommet with a metal insert at the center. At a sufficiently high pressure, the grommet will distort and the insert will blow out of its mounting hole, relieving the pressure. If the pressure continues to increase, the grommet itself will blow out to release pressure. These safety devices usually require replacement if they are activated by excess pressure. A safety device found on newer pressure cookers consists of a self-resettable spring device, fixed onto the lid, which releases excess pressure.
For second generation pressure cookers with selectable pressure and, often hidden, spring valve operation, a common safety feature is the design of the gasket, which expands and releases excess pressure downward between the lid and the pot. This release of excess pressure is forceful and sufficient to extinguish a gas flame, if a gas stove is being used.
Pressure cookers sold in the European Union (EU) must comply with the Pressure Equipment Directive.[6]
[edit]Use at high altitudes

A pressure cooker is often used to compensate for the low atmospheric pressure at high elevations. Under these circumstances water boils at temperatures significantly below 100 °C (212 °F) and, without the use of a pressure cooker, may leave boiled foods undercooked, as described in Charles Darwin's The Voyage of the Beagle (chapter XV, March 20, 1835):
Having crossed the Peuquenes [Piuquenes], we descended into a mountainous country, intermediate between the two main ranges, and then took up our quarters for the night. We were now in the republic of Mendoza. The elevation was probably not under 11,000 feet [...]. At the place where we slept water necessarily boiled, from the diminished pressure of the atmosphere, at a lower temperature than it does in a less lofty country; the case being the converse of that of a Papin's digester. Hence the potatoes, after remaining for some hours in the boiling water, were nearly as hard as ever. The pot was left on the fire all night, and next morning it was boiled again, but yet the potatoes were not cooked.
Lightweight pressure cookers as small as 1.5 litre weighing 1.28 kg are available for mountain climbers. Sherpas often use pressure cookers in base camp.
[edit]Use in food detoxification

Some food toxins can be reduced by pressure cooking. A Korean study of aflatoxins in rice (associated with Aspergillus fungus) showed that pressure cooking was capable of reducing aflatoxin concentrations to between 12 and 22% of the amount in the uncooked rice.
[edit]Foods unsuitable for pressure cooking

Some foods are not recommended for pressure cooking in the liquid, because such foods will expand too much, froth and sputter, which can result in blocking the steam vent.[3] Examples include: macaroni, cranberries and cereals such as oatmeal.[3] Dumplings should not be cooked under pressure, otherwise the dumplings will expand and block the steam vent and could trigger the safety devices that prevent over-pressure. Dumplings can be added to a stew already cooked in the pressure cooker and gently simmered without the lid on.
[edit]References

^ "BAR to PSI to KPa Converter". Retrieved 12 October 2011. Enter the number 15 in the "PSI" text box and then click on the "Calculate" button to reveal the pressure unit values match those shown in this Wikipedia page - albeit with rounding used for simplicity.
^ a b c d e f "Easy Tips for Better Cooking". Retrieved 27 January 2012. Information taken from a website of a manufacturer of pressure cookers.
^ a b c "Important Safeguards". Retrieved 22 February 2012. Information taken from a website of a manufacturer of pressure cookers.
^ Wise, Victoria (2005). The Pressure Cooker Gourmet : 225 Recipes for Great-Tasting, Long-Simmered Flavors in Just Minutes. Harvard, Mass: Harvard Common Press. ISBN 1-55832-201-9.
^ Yadav SK, Sehgal S (February 1995). "Effect of home processing on ascorbic acid and beta-carotene content of spinach (Spinacia oleracia) and amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) leaves". Plant Foods Hum Nutr 47 (2): 125–31. PMID 7792260.
^ "Pressure equipment and gas appliances". 2 February 2012. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
[edit]See also

Pressure frying
Rice cooker, many employ pressure cooking
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pressure cookers
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Pressure cooking
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