درست نویسی

درست‌نویسی یک زبان، روشی استاندارد را برای نوشتن خط یک زبان، نمایش می‌دهد. زمانی که بیش از یک خط برای نوشتن یک زبان موجود باشد، مانند زبان کردی، زبان اویغوری، زبان صربی و یا زبان اینوکتیتوت ممکن است چند درست‌نویسی برای آن زبان موجود باشد. درست‌نویسی از نقاشی خط متفاوت است.

منابع [ویرایش]

مشارکت‌کنندگان ویکی‌پدیا، «Orthography»، ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی، دانشنامهٔ آزاد (بازیابی در ۱۲ آوریل ۲۰۱۱).‎

رده‌های صفحه: زبان‌شناسی کاربردی زبان
از ویکی پدیا
قس
علم قواعد الکتابة شعبة من شعب علم قواعد اللغة یعتنی أهلها بمجمل قواعد رسم الخط والتسطیر والترقیم المعروفة فی اللغة.
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کتابة القرآن
قواعد النطق
قواعد اللغة
قواعد الخط
خط عربی
علم الخط
تسطیر
تهجئة
إملاء
هذه بذرة مقالة عن اللغویات تحتاج للنمو والتحسین، فساهم فی إثرائها بالمشارکة فی تحریرها.
تصنیف: قواعد الکتابة
قس
An orthography is a standardized system for using a particular writing system (script) to write a particular language. It includes rules of spelling, and may also concern other elements of the written language such as punctuation and capitalization.
Most significant languages in the modern era are written down, and for most such languages a standard orthography has developed, often based on a standard variety of the language, and thus exhibiting less dialect variation than the spoken language. Sometimes there may be variation in a language's orthography, as between American and British spelling in the case of English. If a language uses multiple writing systems, it may have distinct orthographies, as is the case with Kurdish, Uyghur, Serbian, Inuktitut and Turkish. In some cases orthography is regulated by bodies such as language academies, although for many languages (including English) there are no such authorities, and orthography develops through less formal processes.
Orthography is distinct from typography, which is concerned with principles of typesetting.
Contents [show]
[edit]Etymology and meaning

The English word orthography dates from the 15th century. It comes from the French orthographie, from Latin orthographia, which is derived from Greek ὀρθός orthós, "correct", and γράφειν gráphein, "to write".[1]
Orthography is largely concerned with matters of spelling, and in particular the relationship between phonemes and graphemes in a language.[2][3] Other elements that may be considered part of orthography include hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.[4] Orthography thus describes or defines the set of symbols used in writing a language, and the rules about how to use those symbols.
Most natural languages developed as oral languages, and writing systems have usually been crafted or adapted as ways of representing the spoken language. The rules for doing this tend to become standardized for a given language, leading to the development of an orthography that is generally considered "correct". In linguistics the term orthography is often used to refer to any method of writing a language, without judgment as to right and wrong, with a scientific understanding that orthographic standardization exists on a spectrum of strength of convention. The original sense of the word, though, implies a dichotomy of correct and incorrect, and the word is still most often used to refer specifically to a thoroughly standardized, prescriptively correct, way of writing a language. A distinction may be made here between etic and emic viewpoints – the purely descriptive (etic) approach which simply considers any system that is actually used, and the emic view which takes account of language users' perceptions of correctness, which are analogous in some ways to a moral sense of right and wrong.
[edit]Units and notation

Orthographic units, such as letters of an alphabet, are technically called graphemes. These are a type of abstraction, analogous to the phonemes of spoken languages; different physical forms of written symbols are considered to represent the same grapheme if the differences between them are not significant for meaning. For example, different forms of the letter "b" are all considered to represent a single grapheme in the orthography of, say, English.
Graphemes or sequences of them are sometimes placed between angle brackets, as in ⟨b⟩ or ⟨back⟩. This distinguishes them from phonemic transcription, which is placed between slashes (/b/, /bæk/), and from phonetic transcription, which is placed between square brackets ([b], [bæk]).
[edit]Types

The writing systems on which orthographies are based can be divided into a number of types, depending on what type of unit each symbol serves to represent. The principal types are logographic (with symbols representing words or morphemes), syllabic (with symbols representing syllables), and alphabetic (with symbols roughly representing phonemes). Many writing systems combine features of more than one of these types, and a number of detailed classifications have been proposed. For a full discussion, see Writing system: Functional classification of writing systems.
[edit]Correspondence between spelling and pronunciation

[edit]Phonemic orthography
Main article: Phonemic orthography
Alphabetic orthographies are based on the principle that the written symbols (graphemes) correspond to the distinctive sound units (phonemes) of the spoken language. A perfectly phonemic orthography would have a complete one-to-one correspondence (bijection) between graphemes and phonemes. In practice, even orthographies that are regarded as being highly phonemic generally deviate from this ideal. Sometimes a phoneme is represented by a sequence of letters rather than by a single letter (as the digraph ch in English and French, and the trigraph sch in German) – and conversely, a single letter may represent a sequence of phonemes (as я sometimes does in Russian). Sometimes different letters represent the same phoneme (as u and ó in Polish), or the same letters can represent different phonemes (as th in English). Sometimes the rules of correspondence are more complex and depend on adjacent letters (as the rules for the pronunciation of c and ci in Italian). Given these complications, an orthography will normally be described as phonemic in so far as it is possible, by applying a known set of rules, to retrieve the phonemes of a word unambiguously from the sequence of graphemes that represents it, and (though this may sometimes be regarded as less important) to predict the graphemes from the sequence of phonemes. In simple terms, a phonemic orthography is one that provides a regular correspondence between spelling and pronunciation. The orthographies of Russian, Spanish and Italian are close to being phonemic in this sense, while that of English is much less so.
[edit]Morpho-phonemic orthography
See also Morphophonology: Morphophonology and orthography
A morpho-phonemic orthography considers not only what is phonemic, as above, but also the underlying structure of the words. For example, in English, /s/ and /z/ are distinct phonemes, so in a phonemic orthography the plurals of cat and dog would be cats and dogz. However, English orthography recognizes that the /s/ sound in cats and the /z/ sound in dogs are forms of the same underlying element (morphophoneme), automatically pronounced differently depending on its environment, and therefore writes them the same despite their differing pronunciation.
German and Russian are morpho-phonemic in this sense, whereas Turkish is purely phonemic.
Korean hangul has changed over the centuries from a highly phonemic to a largely morpho-phonemic orthography, and there are moves in Turkey to make that script more morpho-phonemic as well. Japanese kana are almost completely phonemic, but have a few morpho-phonemic aspects, notably in the use of ぢ di and づ du (rather than じ ji and ず zu, their pronunciation in standard Tokyo dialect), when the character is a voicing of an underlying ち or つ – see rendaku.
Another group of language which experiences a high rate of morpho-phonemic changes is the Austronesian languages. Oftentimes, this causes problems for foreigners who are trying to learn Philippine languages like Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano and others. It is also the same problem of people learning Bahasa Melayu and Bahasa Indonesia.
[edit]Orthographic depth
Main article: Orthographic depth
A "deep" orthography is one in which there is not a one-to-one correspondence between the letters and the phonemes in the language, such as that of English. Most languages of western Europe (which are written with the Latin alphabet), as well as the modern Greek language to a lesser extent (written with the Greek alphabet), have deep orthographies. In some of these, there are sounds with more than one possible spelling, usually for etymological or morpho-phonemic reasons (like /dʒ/ in English, which can be written with ⟨j⟩, ⟨g⟩, ⟨dg⟩, ⟨dge⟩, or ⟨ge⟩). In other cases, there are not enough letters in the alphabet to represent all phonemes. The remaining ones must then be represented by using such devices as diacritics, digraphs that reuse letters with different values (like ⟨th⟩ in English, whose sound value is normally not /t/ + /h/), or simply inferred from the context (for example the short vowels in abjads like the Arabic and Hebrew alphabets, which are normally left unwritten). The syllabary systems of Japanese (hiragana and katakana) are examples of almost perfectly shallow orthography – exceptions include the use ぢ and づ (discussed above) and the use of は, を, and へ to represent the sounds わ, お, and え, as relics of historical kana usage.
Another term to describe this characteristic is "defective orthography". This term, however, clearly implies the superiority of shallow orthographies—a point that advocates of morphophonemic writing would dispute. Using the terms "deep" and "shallow" is therefore more neutral in relation to the question of what types of orthography are superior.
[edit]See also

English orthography
Writing system
Cursive
Graphology
Keyboard layout
Lateral masking
Leet
Palaeography
Penmanship
Prescription and description
Romanization
Typography
Writing
[edit]References

^ orthography, Online Etymology Dictionary
^ Seidenberg, Mark S. 1992. "Beyond Orthographic Depth in Reading: Equitable Division of Labor." In: Ram Frost & Leonard Katz (eds.). Orthography, Phonology, Morphology, and Meaning, pp. 85–118. Amsterdam: Elsevier, p. 93.
^ Donohue, Mark. 2007. "Lexicography for Your Friends." In Terry Crowley, Jeff Siegel, & Diana Eades (eds.). Language Description, History and Development: Linguistic Indulgence in Memory of Terry Crowley. pp. 395–406. Amsterdam: Benjamins, p. 396.
^ Coulmas, Florian. 1996. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Oxford: Blackwell, p. 379.
Smalley, W.A. (ed.) 1964. Orthography studies: articles on new writing systems (United Bible Society, London).
Venezky, Von Richard L.; Tom Trabasso, John P. Sabatini, Dominic W. Massaro, Robert Calfee (2005). From Orthography to Pedagogy. Routledge. ISBN 0805850899, 9780805850895.
[edit]External links

The CODE and the Challenge of Learning to Read It
Videos: The History and Impact of Writing in the West
Omniglot – writing systems & languages of the world – a privately run orthography website
Phonemic awareness page of the CTER wiki
lonestar.texas.net/~jebbo/learn-as/ orthography of Old English
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Categories: OrthographyApplied linguisticsDyslexia