روسی زبان روسی

زبان روسی (به روسی: русский язык، تلفظ: روسکیی ییزیک) پرگوینده‌ترین زبان اروپا است و از میان زبان‌های اسلاوی دارای بیشترین پراکندگی متکلمین است.

این زبان در اروپای شرقی و شمال شرق آسیا و به ویژه در روسیه و سایر کشورهای تشکیل دهنده شوروی سابق صحبت می‌گردد.

روسی زبان مادری حدود ۱۴۵ میلیون نفر است و ۱۱۰ میلیون نفر آن را به عنوان زبان دوم می‌دانند. با این حساب این زبان هشتمین زبان پرمتکلم جهان است.

روسی زبان رسمی کشور روسیه و یکی از زبان‌های رسمی کشورهای بلاروس، قزاقستان، قرقیزستان، و جمهوری خودمختار کریمه، و همچنین یکی از شش زبان رسمی سازمان ملل متحد است.
زبان روسی با خط سیریلیک نوشته و خوانده می‌شود.

محتویات [نمایش]
پیشینه [ویرایش]

زبان روسی از شاخه اسلاوی زبان‌های هندواروپایی است. زبان‌های اسلاوی بیشتر از دیگر زبان‌های هندواروپایی، به زبان‌های بالتیکی نزدیک هستند. زبان اولیه اسلاوی در تاریخ طولانی خود، به‌ویژه در سده‌های ۴ تا ۶ میلادی دچار دگرگونی زیادی شد. از سدهٔ ششم بود که زبان‌های جداگانه اسلاوی پدید آمدند. زبان روسی باستانی نیای زبان‌های روسی و بلاروسی و اوکرائینی معاصر بود. شاخه‌شاخه شدن روسی باستان و پدید آمدن این زبان‌ها در سدهٔ ۱۶ رخ داد.[۱]

جستارهای وابسته [ویرایش]

فهرست واژه‌های فارسی با ریشهٔ روسی
منابع [ویرایش]

↑ رادیوی روسیه: درس زبان روسی. بازدید: ژانویه ۲۰۱۰.
Wikipedia contributors, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia «Russian language,» (accessed January ۱۷, ۲۰۰۸)
فرهنگ روسی به فارسی
پیوند به بیرون [ویرایش]

انجمن علمی زبان روسی دانشگاه تهران


[نمایش]
ن • ب • و
زبان روسی گویش (دستور زبان)
[نمایش]
ن • ب • و
زبان‌های روسیه
[نمایش]
ن • ب • و
زبان‌ها و گویش‌های اسلاوی
رده‌های صفحه: زبان روسی زبان‌های آفریقای جنوبی زبان‌های ارمنستان زبان‌های ازبکستان زبان‌های اسپانیا زبان‌های استرالیازبان‌های اسلاوی شرقی زبان‌های امارات متحده عربی زبان‌های اوکراین زبان‌های ایتالیازبان‌های بلغارستان زبان‌های تاجیکستان زبان‌های ترکمنستان زبان‌های ترکیه زبان‌های جمهوری آذربایجان زبان‌های چین زبان‌های روسیه زبان‌های رومانی زبان‌های سوریه زبان‌های صربستان زبان‌های قفقازی زبان‌های کانادا زبان‌های لبنان زبان‌های لهستان زبان‌های مولداوی زبان‌های یونان زبان‌ها

قس عربی

اللغة الروسیة (русский язык أصد: [ˈruskʲɪj jɪˈzɨk]‎) هی أکثر اللغات السلافیة انتشاراً. وهی إحدى أکثر لغات العالم انتشاراً، حیث یتحدثها حوالی 164,000,000 شخص فی العالم. ویتوزع الناطقون بالروسیة فی روسیا والمناطق المجاورة بها، کدول رابطة الدول المستقلة. وهی اللغة الرسمیة فی روسیا، وإحدى اللغات الرسمیة فی الأمم المتحدة. وهی لغة غیر رسمیة ولکن تحدث على نطاق واسع فی أوکرانیا ولاتفیا واستونیا ، وإلى حد أقل ، فی البلدان الأخرى التی کانت الجمهوریات المکونة لـ الاتحاد السوفیتی.
وهذه هی اللغة الأکثر انتشارا جغرافیا فی أوراسیا ، وأکثرها انتشارا من اللغات السلافیة ، وأکبر اللغات الأم فی أوروبا. اللغة الروسیة تنتمی إلى عائلة اللغات الهندو أوروبیة وهی واحدة من ثلاث (أو أربع بما فی ذلک Rusyn) لغات من اللغات السلافیة الشرقیة. وتشهد الأمثلة من کتب السلافیة القدیمة بین الشرق بدءا من القرن 10. اللغة هی واحدة من اللغات الرسمیة الست للأمم المتحدة.
محتویات [اعرض]
[عدل]حروف اللغة الروسیة

فی اللغة الروسیة 33 حرفا، اثنان منها لا ینطقان ولثلاثین حرفا منها شکلان أحدهما کبیر والآخر صغیر. وتبدأ کل جملة وأسماء العلم والأسماء الجغرافیة بحرف کبیر. وتکتب الکلمات والجمل من الیسار إلى الیمین. وللحروف شکلان أحدهما مطبعی والآخر للکتابة.
Аа
-
Бб
-
Вв
-
Гг
-
Дд
-
Ее
-
Ёё
-
Жж
-
Зз
-
Ии
-
Йй
-
Кк
-
Лл
-
Мм
-
Нн
-
Оо
-
Пп
-
Рр
-
Сс
-
Тт
-
Уу
-
Фф
-
Хх
-
Цц
-
Чч
-
Шш
-
Щщ
-
Ъъ
-
Ыы
-
Ьь
-
Ээ
-
Юю
-
Яя
-
[عدل]کلمات وجمل کثیرة الاستعمال

Здравствуйте(زدراستفویتی) - مرحبًا
До свидания(دا سفیدانیا) - إلى اللقاء
Пожалуйста(پاجالوستا) - من فضلک
Спасибо(سپاسیبا) - شکرًا
?Сколько стоит(سکولکا ستویت?) کم تساوی (بکم السعر)؟
Английский(انگلیسکی) - الإنجلیزیّة
Да(دا) - نعم
Нет(نییت) - لا
?Где туалет(کدی توالیت) - أین الحمّام؟
?Как вас зовут(کاک فاس زافوت؟) - ما اسمکم؟ (حرفیاً: کیف یسمونکم؟)
Я не понимаю(یا نی بانیمایو) - لا أفهم
Добро пожаловать(دابرو پجالوفات) - أهلاً وسهلاً
?Как дeла(کاک دیلا?)- کیف الحال؟
?Как жизнь(کاک جیزن?) - کیف الحیاة؟
?А вы(أ فی؟) - وانتم؟
Хорошо(خراشو) - جید
Россия(راسسییا) - روسیا
Арабский(ارابسکی) - العربیّة
Коран(کورأن) - أَلْقُرآن
[عدل]صوتیات اللغة الروسیة

اللغة الروسیة تمیزها الصوتیات الصامتة و الصوتیات الثانویة الحنکیة، و الأصوات المادیة و غیر المادیة. هذه الصوتیات تعطیها تمیزا عثر علیه بین زوج من أغلب الحروف الصامتة و هی واحدة من أکثر ممیزات و خصائص اللغة. و من أهم ممیزات اللغة الحد من حروف العلة المشددة، التی تشبه إلى حد ما تلک التی فی الإنجلیزیة. النبرة التی لا یمکن التنبؤ بها، لیست مشاراً إلیها إملائیاً، على الرغم من اللهجة الحادة اختیاریاً (знак ударения)"لهجة" ربما أو فی بعض الأحیان ینبغی أن تستخدم لتمییز التشدید (مثل التمییز بین الکلمات المتطابقة أو خلاف ذلک للدلالة على النطق السلیم للکلمات أو أسماء شائعة).
[عدل]انظر أیضًا

قواعد اللغة الروسیة
[عدل]وصلات خارجیة

دروس اللغة الروسیة للعرب على قناة روسیا الیوم
http://www.ru4arab.ru
http://www.learningrussian.com/alphabet.htm
http://www.langintro.com/rintro
بوابة اللغة
[أظهر] ع • ن • تلغات سلافیة
[أظهر] ع • ن • تاللغات الرسمیة للأمم المتحدة
[أظهر] ع • ن • تمنظمة شانغهای للتعاون
تصنیفات: لغة روسیةلغات سلافیة شرقیةلغات روسیالغات أوکرانیالغات قرغیزستانلغات کازاخستانلغات بیلاروسیا

قس مصری

الروسى (Русский язык) هوه لغه سلافیه شرقیه زى الاوکرانى و البیلاروسى وهما کلهم تبع عیلة اللغات الاندو-اوروبیه. الروسى هوه اللغه الرسمیه بتاعة روسیا بالاضافة لبلاد تانیه زى بیلاروس، کازاخستان ،قیرغیزستان و اوزبیکستان. الروسى کمان واحده من اللغات الرسمیه السته فى الامم المتحده.

[تعدیل]الکتابه

الروسى بتکتب بالحروف الکیریلیه ( متعدله شویه) و الالفبائیه الروسیه بتتکون من 33 حرف و دا جدول بالحروف الروسیه مع النطق بتاعهم:

А
/a/ Б
/b/ В
/v/ Г
/g/ Д
/d/ Е
/je/ Ё
/jo/ Ж
/ʐ/ З
/z/ И
/i/ Й
/j/
К
/k/ Л
/l/ М
/m/ Н
/n/ О
/o/ П
/p/ Р
/r/ С
/s/ Т
/t/ У
/u/ Ф
/f/
Х
/h/ Ц
/ts/ Ч
/tɕ/ Ш
/ʂ/ Щ
/ɕɕ/ Ъ
/-/ Ы
[ɨ] Ь
/-/ Э
/e/ Ю
/ju/ Я
/ja/
اللغات الرسمیه بتاعة الامم المتحده
انجلیزى - فرنساوى - اسپانى - روسى - عربى - صینى

روسى (نسخه من ویکیپیدیا, الموسوعه الحره.)
فیه فایلات فى تصانیف ویکیمیدیا کومونز عن:
روسى
تصانیف: لغات روسیا

قس ترکی آذری

Rus dili — Rusiya, Belarus, Qazaxıstan, Qırğızıstanın rəsmi dili. Belarusun ikinci dövlət dilidir. Ən çox rus dilinin vətəni Rusiyada danışılır.
[redaktə]Əlifba

Rus əlifbasında 33 hərf var.
Hərf Hərfin adının tələffüzü (IPA) Hərfin adının tələffüzü (azərbaycanca)
Аа a
Бб be
Вв ve
Гг qe
Дд de
Ее ye
Ёё yo
Жж je
Зз ze
Ии i
Йй iy
Кк ka
Лл el
Мм em
Нн en
Оо o
Пп pe
Рр re
Сс es, və ya se
Тт te
Уу u
Фф ef, və ya fe
Хх xa, və ya xe
Цц tse
Чч çe
Шш şa, və ya şe
Щщ şə, və ya şya
Ъъ
Ыы ı
Ьь
Ээ e
Юю yu
Яя ya
[redaktə]Xarici keçidlər

Azərbaycanca-Rusca, Rusca-Azerbaycanca Lüğət
[redaktə]İstinadlar

↑ В Таджикистане русскому языку вернули прежний статус
↑ Русский язык стал официальным языком в штате Нью-Йорк. АНН news. Yoxlanılıb 2009-12-07.
↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 Languages of the World (Charts)
↑ 4,0 4,1 Демоскоп Weekly — Сколько людей говорят и будут говорить по-русски?
↑ Независимая газета — Геополитический потенциал Русского мира
Dil ilə əlaqədar bu məqalə qaralama halındadır. Məqaləni redaktə edərək Vikipediyanı zənginləşdirin.

[gizlə]
g • m • r
Rus dili
Tarixi (yazısı) • Əlifbası • Orfoqrafiyası (islahatdan əvvəl orfoqrafiyası) • Transliterasiya • Punktuasiyası • Fonetikası • Transkripsiyası • Söz yaradıcılığı • Leksikası • Qrammatikası (morfologiyası, sintaksisi) • Dialektləri • Şəxsi adlar • Əcnəbi dil kimi • Rus dili dünyada
[göstər]
g • m • r
BMT-nin rəsmi dilləri
[göstər] Slavyan dilləri
[göstər] Rusiya Federasiyasının subyektlərində dövlət dilləri və rəsmi dillər
Kateqoriyalar: Dil qaralamalarıRus diliRusiya dilləriBelarus dilləriAvstraliya dilləriAlmaniya dilləriİsrail dilləriMonqolustan dilləriQazaxıstan dilləriKanada dilləriQırğızıstan dilləriÇin dilləriLatviya dilləriLitva dilləriMoldova dilləriABŞ dilləriYeni Zelandiya dilləriÖzbəkistan dilləriUkrayna dilləriEstoniya dilləriAzərbaycan dilləriGürcüstan dilləriErmənistan dilləriTacikistan dilləriTürkmənistan dilləri

قس ترکی استانبولی

Rusça (русский язык (yardım•info, okunuşu: ruskiy yazık), Slav Dillerinden, Avrasya'da yaygın olarak konuşulan bir dil.
Rusça, Beyaz Rusça ve Ukraynaca ile birlikte Hint-Avrupa dil ailesinin Slav Dilleri grubunun Doğu Slav Dilleri alt grubuna girer. 20. yüzyılda politik açıdan önemli bir dil olan Rusça, Birleşmiş Milletlerin resmi dillerinden biridir.[3]
Konu başlıkları [göster]
Coğrafi Dağılım [değiştir]

Rusçanın en yaygın kullanıldığı ülkeler Rusya, Ukrayna, Kazakistan ve Belarus’tur. Bir zaman Sovyetler Birliği’ni oluşturan ülkelerde de eskisi kadar yaygın olmasa da kullanılmaktadır. Sovyetler zamanında farklı etnik grupların konuştuğu dillere yönelik devlet politikası sık sık değişse de, ağırlıklı olarak Rusça kullanılmaktaydı. 1990 yılında Rusça, Birliğin resmi dili olarak kabul edildi. [4]) 1991 yılında Sovyetler Birliğinin dağılmasıyla birlikte, yeni bağımsızlığını kazanmış devletlerin çoğu kendi yerel dillerini destekleyen politikalar izlediler. Ancak Rusçanın bölgedeki önemi güncelliğini korumaktadır.
Tarih [değiştir]



Baška tableti, 11. yüzyıl, Krk, Hırvatistan
Bilinen Rus dili tarihinin başlangıç yılı 858'dir. Rusça sistemi Slav dillerinden gelmiştir ve en çok sözcük Slav Dilinden ve Eski Rus Dilinden aktarılmadır. Rus dilinde Kiril Alfabesi kullanılır. 988 yılında Kiev Rusyasının prensi Vladimir, Konstantinopolis’ten Ortodoks dinini Kiev Rusyasına taşıdı. Bulgar eğitimci Konstantin (en tanıdık adı Kiril’dir) ve Metodius kardeşler Slavlar için Glagol Alfabesini ürettiler. Glagol Alfabesi Slav dili için kullanışsızdı. Onun için Kiril ve Metodius yeni Kiril Alfabesini üretince, İncil'i Slavcaya çevirdiler. O zamandan beri Rus dilinde Kiril Alfabesi kullanılır. Şimdiki Rus stilindeki Kiril Alfabesinde 33 harf vardır.
Alfabe [değiştir]

Rusça 33 harften oluşan ve Kiril abecesinin Rusçaya uyarlanmış şekli olan bir abece kullanır. Bu abece:
А а
/a/ Б б
/b/ В в
/v/ Г г
/g/ Д д
/d/ Е е
/ye/ — ё
/yo/ Ж ж
/j/ З з
/z/ И и
/i/ Й й
/y/
К к
/k/ Л л
/l/ М м
/m/ Н н
/n/ О о
/o/ П п
/p/ Р р
/r/ С с
/s/ Т т
/t/ У у
/u/ Ф ф
/f/
Х х
/x, h/ Ц ц
ts Ч ч
/ç/ Ш ш
ş Щ щ
şç — ъ
kalınlastırma
işareti (bu işaretden önceki harf kalın okunur) — ы
ı — ь
inceltme
işareti (bu işaretden önceki harf ince okunur) Э э
/e/ Ю ю
/yu/ Я я
/ya/
Notlar [değiştir]

^ [www.eng.expert.ru/printissues/countries/2006/09/russkiy_yazyk_v_blizhayshem_zarubezhe How Do You Say That in Russian? (Эксперт)] (İngilizce)
^ "The World's Most Widely Spoken Languages". 2009-05-16 tarihinde erişildi.
^ http://www.un.org/Depts/DGACM/faq_languages.htm
^ "ЗАКОН СССР ОТ 24.04.1990 О ЯЗЫКАХ НАРОДОВ СССР" (SSCB Dilleri Hakkında SSCB Kanunu, 1990 (Rusça)
Konuyla ilgili diğer Wikimedia sayfaları :

Commons'ta Rusça ile ilgili çoklu ortam dosyaları bulunmaktadır.

Vikisözlük'te Rusça ile ilgili kelime açıklaması bulunmaktadır.

Vikikitap'ta Rusça ile ilgili kılavuz veya ders kitapları bulunmaktadır.

Dış bağlantılar [değiştir]

Etnoloji'de Rusça
Rosetta Project'te Rusça

[göster] g • t • dBirleşmiş Milletler'in resmî dilleri
[göster] g • t • dSlav dilleri
Kategori: Rusça

قس ازبکی
Rus tili - bir til sharqiy Yevropada. Slavyan tillari oilasiga kiradi.
[tahrir]Rus alifbosi

А а Б б В в Г г Д д Е е Ё ё
Ж ж З з И и Й й К к Л л М м
Н н О о П п Р р С с Т т У у
Ф ф Х х Ц ц Ч ч Ш ш Щ щ Ъ ъ
Ы ы Ь ь Э э Ю ю Я я
[tahrir]Havolalar

Oʻzbekcha-Ruscha lugʻat (lotin va kirill)
Turkumlar: TillarRossiyaSlavyan tillari

قس اردو
روس میں بولی جانے والی زبان۔
زمرہ جات: زبانیں روسی زبان

قس انگلیسی

Russian (ру́сский язы́к, russkiy yazyk, pronounced [ˈruskʲɪj jɪˈzɨk]) is a Slavic language spoken primarily in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Estonia, and to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics of the USSR.[16][17] Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of three living members of the East Slavic languages. Written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century onwards.
It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages. It is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the 8th most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers and the 4th by total number of speakers.[18] The language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.
Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language. Another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels, which is somewhat similar to that of English. Stress, which is unpredictable, is not normally indicated orthographically[19] though an optional acute accent (знак ударения, znak udareniya) may be used to mark stress (such as to distinguish between homographic words, for example замо́к (meaning lock) and за́мок (meaning castle), or to indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words or names).
Contents [show]
[edit]Classification

Russian is a Slavic language in the Indo-European family. From the point of view of the spoken language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian and Belarusian, the other two national languages in the East Slavic group. In many places in eastern and southern Ukraine and throughout Belarus, these languages are spoken interchangeably, and in certain areas traditional bilingualism resulted in language mixtures, e.g. Surzhyk in eastern Ukraine and Trasianka in Belarus. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is sometimes considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. Also Russian has much in common with Bulgarian in vocabulary and phonetics as a result of interaction between the languages in the 19th–20th centuries, as well as the Church Slavonic influence on the both, although the Bulgarian grammar differs markedly from the Russian one.[20] In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian language based on the now discredited view that Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian were dialects of a single language.
The vocabulary (mainly abstract and literary words), principles of word formations, and, to some extent, inflections and literary style of Russian have been also influenced by Church Slavonic, a developed and partly russified form of the South Slavic Old Church Slavonic language used by the Russian Orthodox Church. However, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with many different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language.
Over the course of centuries, the vocabulary and literary style of Russian have also been influenced by Western and Central European languages such as Greek, Latin, Polish, Dutch, German, French, and English,[21] and to a lesser extent the languages to the north and the east: Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Persian, Arabic.
According to the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, Russian is classified as a level III language in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers, requiring approximately 780 hours of immersion instruction to achieve intermediate fluency. It is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a "hard target" language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy.
[edit]Standard Russian

The standard well-known form of Russian is generally called the Modern Russian Literary Language (Современный русский литературный язык). It arose in the beginning of the 18th century with the modernization reforms of the Russian state by Peter the Great. It developed from the Moscow (Middle or Central Russian) dialect substratum under some influence of the Russian chancellery language of the previous centuries. It was Lomonosov who first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755. In 1783 the first explanatory dictionary of Russian by Russian Academy of Science appeared. During the end of the 18th and 19th centuries Russian went through the stage (known as "Golden Age") of stabilization and standardization of its grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation, and of the flourishing its world-famous literature, and became the nationwide literary language. Also until the 20th century its spoken form was the language only of the upper noble classes and urban population, Russian peasants from the countryside continued speaking in their own dialects. By the middle of the 20th century Standard Russian finally forced out its dialects with the compulsory education system, established by the Soviet government, and mass-media (radio and TV). Though some dialectical features (such as fricative /ɣ/) are still observed in colloquial speech.
[edit]Geographic distribution

During the Soviet period, the policy toward the languages of the various other ethnic groups fluctuated in practice. Though each of the constituent republics had its own official language, the unifying role and superior status was reserved for Russian, although it was declared the official language only in 1990.[22] Following the break-up of the USSR in 1991, several of the newly independent states have encouraged their native languages, which has partly reversed the privileged status of Russian, though its role as the language of post-Soviet national discourse throughout the region has continued.


Competence of Russian in the countries of the former USSR, 2004
In Latvia its official recognition and legality in the classroom have been a topic of considerable debate in a country where more than one-third of the population is Russian-speaking (see Russians in Latvia). Similarly, in Estonia, ethnic Russians constitute 25.5% of the country's current population[23] and 58.6% of the native Estonian population is also able to speak Russian.[24] In all, 67.8% of Estonia's population can speak Russian.[24] Command of Russian language, however, is rapidly decreasing among younger Estonians (primarily being replaced by the command of English). For example, if 53% of ethnic Estonians between 15–19 claim to speak some Russian, then among the 10–14 year old group, command of Russian has fallen to 19% (which is about one-third the percentage of those who claim to have command of English in the same age group).[24]
In Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, Russian remains a co-official language with Kazakh and Kyrgyz, respectively. Large Russian-speaking communities still exist in northern Kazakhstan, and ethnic Russians comprise 25.6% of Kazakhstan's population.[25]
Those who speak Russian as a mother or secondary language in Lithuania represent approximately 60% of the population of Lithuania. Also, more than half of the population of the Baltic states speak Russian either as foreign language or as mother tongue.[24][26][27] As the Grand Duchy of Finland was part of the Russian Empire from 1809 to 1918, a number of Russian speakers have remained in Finland. There are 33,400 Russian-speaking Finns, amounting to 0.6% of the population. Five thousand (0.1%) of them are late 19th century and 20th century immigrants or their descendants, and the remaining majority are recent immigrants, who have moved there in the 1990s and later.[citation needed]
In the 20th century, Russian was widely taught in the schools of the members of the old Warsaw Pact and in other countries that used to be satellites of the USSR. In particular, these countries include Poland, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Albania, former East Germany and Cuba. However, younger generations are usually not fluent in it, because Russian is no longer mandatory in the school system. According to the Eurobarometer 2005 survey,[28] though, fluency in Russian remains fairly high (20–40%) in some countries, in particular those where the people speak a Slavic language and thereby have an edge in learning Russian (namely, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Bulgaria). In 2005, it was the most widely taught foreign language in Mongolia,[29] and has been compulsory in Year 7 onward as a second foreign language since 2006.[30]
Russian is also spoken in Israel by at least 750,000 ethnic Jewish immigrants from the former Soviet Union (1999 census). The Israeli press and websites regularly publish material in Russian.[citation needed] Russian is also spoken as a second language by a small number of people in Afghanistan (Awde and Sarwan, 2003).
The language was first introduced in North America when Russian explorers voyaged into Alaska and claimed it for Russia during the 1700's. Although most colonists left after the United States bought the land in 1867, a handful stayed and preserved the Russian language in this region to this day, although only a few elderly speakers of this unique dialect are left.[31] Sizable Russian-speaking communities also exist in North America, especially in large urban centers of the U.S. and Canada, such as New York City, Philadelphia, Boston, Los Angeles, Nashville, San Francisco, Seattle, Spokane, Toronto, Baltimore, Miami, Chicago, Denver and Cleveland. In a number of locations they issue their own newspapers, and live in ethnic enclaves (especially the generation of immigrants who started arriving in the early sixties). Only about a quarter of them are ethnic Russians, however. Before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the overwhelming majority of Russophones in North America were Russian-speaking Jews. Afterwards, the influx from the countries of the former Soviet Union changed the statistics somewhat, with ethnic Russians and Ukrainians immigrating along with some more Russian Jews.[vague] According to the United States Census, in 2007 Russian was the primary language spoken in the homes of over 850,000 individuals living in the United States.[32]
Significant Russian-speaking groups also exist in Western Europe. These have been fed by several waves of immigrants since the beginning of the 20th century, each with its own flavor of language. The United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Brazil, Norway, and Austria have significant Russian-speaking communities, Germany has the highest Russian-speaking population outside the former Soviet Union with approximately 3 million people.[33] Australian cities Melbourne and Sydney also have Russian speaking populations, with the most Russians living in southeast Melbourne, particularly the suburbs of Carnegie and Caulfield. Two thirds of them are actually Russian-speaking descendants of Germans, Greeks, Jews, Azerbaijanis, Armenians or Ukrainians, who either repatriated after the USSR collapsed, or are just looking for temporary employment.[citation needed]
Russians in China form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by mainland China.
Recent estimates of the total number of speakers of Russian
Source Native speakers Native rank Total speakers Total rank
G. Weber, "Top Languages",
Language Monthly,
3: 12–18, 1997, ISSN 1369-9733 160,000,000 8 285,000,000 5
World Almanac (1999) 145,000,000 8 (2005) 275,000,000 5
SIL (2000 WCD) 145,000,000 8 255,000,000 5–6 (tied with Arabic)
CIA World Factbook (2005) 160,000,000 8
[edit]Official status
Russian is the official language of Russia, although it shares the official status at regional level with other languages in the numerous ethnic autonomies within Russia, such as Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, and Yakutia. It is also a co-official language of Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and a co-official language of the unrecognized country of Transnistria and partially recognized countries of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a popular choice for both Russian as a second language (RSL) and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics.[34]
94 % [35] of the school students of Russia, 75% in Belarus, 41% in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, 20% in Ukraine,[36] 23% in Kyrgyzstan, 21% in Moldova, 7% in Azerbaijan, 5% in Georgia and 2% in Armenia and Tajikistan receive their education only or mostly in Russian. The percentage of ethnic Russians is 80% in Russia, 10% in Belarus, 36% in Kazakhstan, 17% in Ukraine, 9% in Kyrgyzstan, 6% in Moldova, 2% in Azerbaijan, 1.5% in Georgia and less than 1% in both Armenia and Tajikistan.[citation needed]
Russian-language schooling is also available in Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. However, due to recent high school reforms in Latvia (whereby the government pays a substantial sum to a school to teach in the national language), the number of subjects taught in Russian has been reduced in the country.[37][38] The language has a co-official status alongside Romanian in the autonomies of Gagauzia and Transnistria in Moldova. In the Autonomous Republic of Crimea in Ukraine, Russian is recognized as a regional language alongside Crimean Tatar. According to a poll by FOM-Ukraine, Russian is the most widely spoken language in Ukraine understood literally by everyone.[39][40][need quotation to verify] However, despite its widespread usage, pro-Russian Crimean activists complain about the (mandatory) use of Ukrainian in schools, movie theaters, courts, on drug prescriptions and its use in the media and for government paperwork.[41][42]
[edit]Dialects
Main article: Russian dialects


Russian dialects in 1915
Northern dialects
1. Arkhangelsk dialect
2. Olonets dialect
3. Novgorod dialect
4. Viatka dialect
5. Vladimir dialect
Central dialects
6. Moscow dialect
7. Tver dialect
Southern dialects
8. Orel (Don) dialect
9. Ryazan dialect
10. Tula dialect
11. Smolensk dialect
Other
12. Northern Russian dialect with Belorussian influences
13. Sloboda and Steppe dialects of Ukrainian
14. Steppe dialect of Ukrainian with Russian influences
Despite leveling after 1900, especially in matters of vocabulary and phonetics, a number of dialects still exist in Russia. Some linguists divide the dialects of Russian into two primary regional groupings, "Northern" and "Southern", with Moscow lying on the zone of transition between the two. Others divide the language into three groupings, Northern, Central (or Middle) and Southern, with Moscow lying in the Central region.[43][44] All dialects also divided in two main chronological categories: the dialects of primary formation (the territory of the Eastern Rus’ or Muscovy, roughly consists of the modern Central and Northwestern Federal districts); and secondary formation (other territory). Dialectology within Russia recognizes dozens of smaller-scale variants. The dialects often show distinct and non-standard features of pronunciation and intonation, vocabulary and grammar. Some of these are relics of ancient usage now completely discarded by the standard language.
The Northern Russian dialects and those spoken along the Volga River typically pronounce unstressed /o/ clearly (the phenomenon called okanye/оканье).[44] Besides the absence of vowel reduction some dialects have high or diphthongal /e~i̯ɛ/ in the place of Proto-Slavic *ě and /o~u̯ɔ/ in stressed closed syllables (like in Ukrainian) instead of Standard Russian /e/ and /o/.[44] In morphology it has an interesting feature as a post-posed definite article -to, -ta, -te similarly existing in Bulgarian and Macedonian.[44]
In the Southern Russian dialects unstressed /e/ and /a/ following palatalized consonants and preceding a stressed syllable are not reduced to [ɪ] (like in the Moscow dialect), being instead pronounced /a/ in such positions (e.g. несли is pronounced [nʲasˈlʲi], not [nʲɪsˈlʲi]) – this is called yakanye/яканье.[44][45] Consonants include a fricative /ɣ/, a semivowel /w~u̯/ and /x~xv~xw/, whereas the Standard and Northern dialects have the consonants /ɡ/, /v/, final /l/ and /f/, respectively.[44] In morphology it has a palatalized final /tʲ/ in 3rd person forms of verbs (this is unpalatalized in the Standard and Northern dialects).[44][46] Some of these features such as akanye/yakanye, a debuccalized or lenited /ɡ/, a semivowel /w~u̯/ and palatalized final /tʲ/ in 3rd person forms of verbs are also present in modern Belarusian and some dialects of Ukrainian (Eastern Polesian), indicating a linguistic continuum.
The city of Veliky Novgorod has historically displayed a feature called chokanye/tsokanye (чоканье/цоканье), where /tɕ/ and /ts/ were confused. So, цапля ("heron") has been recorded as 'чапля'. Also, the second palatalization of velars did not occur there, so the so-called ě² (from the Proto-Slavic diphthong *ai) did not cause /k, ɡ, x/ to shift to /ts, dz, s/; therefore where Standard Russian has цепь ("chain"), the form кепь [kʲepʲ] is attested in earlier texts.
Among the first to study Russian dialects was Lomonosov in the 18th century. In the 19th, Vladimir Dal compiled the first dictionary that included dialectal vocabulary. Detailed mapping of Russian dialects began at the turn of the 20th century. In modern times, the monumental Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language (Диалектологический атлас русского языка [dʲɪɐˌlʲɛktəlɐˈɡʲitɕɪskʲɪj ˈatləs ˈruskəvə jɪzɨˈka]), was published in three folio volumes 1986–1989, after four decades of preparatory work.
[edit]Derived languages
Balachka a dialect, spoken primarily by Cossacks, in the regions of Don, Kuban and Terek.
Fenya, a criminal argot of ancient origin, with Russian grammar, but with distinct vocabulary.
Medny Aleut language is a nearly extinct mixed language spoken on Bering Island that is characterized by its Aleut nouns and Russian verbs.
Padonkaffsky jargon is a slang language developed by padonki of Runet.
Quelia, a pseudo pidgin of German and Russian.
Runglish, Russian-English pidgin. This word is also used by English speakers to describe the way in which Russians attempt to speak English using Russian morphology and/or syntax.
Russenorsk is an extinct pidgin language with mostly Russian vocabulary and mostly Norwegian grammar, used for communication between Russians and Norwegian traders in the Pomor trade in Finnmark and the Kola Peninsula.
Surzhyk is a heavily russified variety of Ukrainian. It is used by a large portion of the population of Ukraine, especially in the eastern and central areas of the country.
Trasianka is a language with Russian and Belarusian features used by a large portion of the rural population in Belarus.
[edit]Alphabet



A page from Azbuka (Alphabet book), the first Russian printed textbook. Printed by Ivan Fyodorov in 1574. This page features the Cyrillic script.
Main article: Russian alphabet
Russian is written using a modified version of the Cyrillic (кириллица) alphabet. The Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The following table gives their upper case forms, along with IPA values for each letter's typical sound:
А
/a/ Б
/b/ В
/v/ Г
/ɡ/ Д
/d/ Е
/je/ Ё
/jo/ Ж
/ʐ/ З
/z/ И
/i/ Й
/j/
К
/k/ Л
/l/ М
/m/ Н
/n/ О
/o/ П
/p/ Р
/r/ С
/s/ Т
/t/ У
/u/ Ф
/f/
Х
/x/ Ц
/ts/ Ч
/tɕ/ Ш
/ʂ/ Щ
/ɕɕ/ Ъ
/-/ Ы
/ɨ/ Ь
/ʲ/ Э
/e/ Ю
/ju/ Я
/ja/
Older letters of the Russian alphabet include ⟨ѣ⟩, which merged to ⟨е⟩ (/je/ or /ʲe/); ⟨і⟩ and ⟨ѵ⟩, which both merged to ⟨и⟩ (/i/); ⟨ѳ⟩, which merged to ⟨ф⟩ (/f/); ⟨ѫ⟩, which merged to ⟨у⟩ (/u/); ⟨ѭ⟩, which merged to ⟨ю⟩ (/ju/ or /ʲu/); and ⟨ѧ⟩/⟨ѩ⟩, which later were graphically reshaped into "я " and merged phonetically to /ja/ or /ʲa/. While these older letters have been abandoned at one time or another, they may be used in this and related articles. The yers ⟨ъ⟩ and ⟨ь⟩ originally indicated the pronunciation of ultra-short or reduced /ŭ/, /ĭ/.
[edit]Transliteration
Further information: Romanization of Russian and Informal romanizations of Russian
Because of many technical restrictions in computing and also because of the unavailability of Cyrillic keyboards abroad, Russian is often transliterated using the Latin alphabet. For example, мороз ("frost") is transliterated moroz, and мышь ("mouse"), mysh or myš'. Once commonly used by the majority of those living outside Russia, transliteration is being used less frequently by Russian speaking typists in favor of the extension of Unicode character encoding, which fully incorporates the Russian alphabet. Free programs leveraging this Unicode extension are available which allow users to type Russian characters, even on western 'QWERTY' keyboards.[47]
[edit]Computing
The Russian alphabet has many systems of character encoding. KOI8-R was designed by the government and was intended to serve as the standard encoding. This encoding was and still is widely used in UNIX-like operating systems. Nevertheless, the spread of MS-DOS and OS/2 (IBM866), traditional Macintosh (ISO/IEC 8859-5) and Microsoft Windows (CP1251) created chaos and ended by establishing different encodings as de-facto standards, with Windows-1251 becoming a de facto standard in Russian Internet and e-mail communication during the period of roughly 1995-2005.
But nowadays all the obsolete 8-bit encodings are rarely used in the communication protocols and text exchange data formats, being mostly replaced with UTF-8. A number of encoding conversion applications were developed. "iconv" is an example that is supported by most versions of Linux, Macintosh and some other operating systems; but you rarely still need those converters, unless accessing texts created more than a few years ago.
In addition to the modern Russian alphabet, Unicode (and thus UTF-8) encodes the Early Cyrillic alphabet (which is very similar to the Greek alphabet), as well as all other Slavic and non-Slavic but Cyrillic-based alphabets.
[edit]Orthography
Main article: Russian orthography
Russian spelling is reasonably phonemic in practice. It is in fact a balance among phonemics, morphology, etymology, and grammar; and, like that of most living languages, has its share of inconsistencies and controversial points. A number of rigid spelling rules introduced between the 1880s and 1910s have been responsible for the former whilst trying to eliminate the latter.
The current spelling follows the major reform of 1918, and the final codification of 1956. An update proposed in the late 1990s has met a hostile reception, and has not been formally adopted. The punctuation, originally based on Byzantine Greek, was in the 17th and 18th centuries reformulated on the French and German models.
According to the Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences, an optional acute accent (знак ударения) may, and sometimes should, be used to mark stress. For example, it is used to distinguish between otherwise identical words, especially when context does not make it obvious: замо́к/за́мок (lock/castle), сто́ящий/стоя́щий (worthwhile/standing), чудно́/чу́дно (this is odd/this is marvelous), молоде́ц/мо́лодец (attaboy/fine young man), узна́ю/узнаю́ (I shall learn it/I am recognizing it), отреза́ть/отре́зать (to cut/to have cut); to indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words, especially personal and family names (афе́ра, гу́ру, Гарси́я, Оле́ша, Фе́рми), and to express the stressed word in the sentence (Ты́ съел печенье?/Ты съе́л печенье?/Ты съел пече́нье? – Was it you who ate the cookie?/Did you eat the cookie?/Was it the cookie that you ate?). Stress marks are mandatory in lexical dictionaries and books for children or Russian learners.
As a historical aside, Vladimir Dal was, in the second half of the 19th century, still insisting that the proper spelling of the adjective русский, which was at that time applied uniformly to all the Orthodox Eastern Slavic subjects of the Empire, as well as to its one official language, should be "руский " with one "с ", in accordance with ancient tradition and what he termed the "spirit of the language". He was contradicted by the philologist Yakov Grot, who distinctly heard the "с " lengthened or doubled.
[edit]Sounds

Main article: Russian phonology
The phonological system of Russian is inherited from Common Slavonic, but underwent considerable modification in the early historical period, before being largely settled around the year 1400.
The language possesses five vowels (or six, under the St. Petersburg Phonological School), which are written with different letters depending on whether or not the preceding consonant is palatalized. The consonants typically come in plain vs. palatalized pairs, which are traditionally called hard and soft. (The hard consonants are often velarized, especially before back vowels, as in Irish, although in some dialects the velarization is limited to hard /l/). The standard language, based on the Moscow dialect, possesses heavy stress and moderate variation in pitch. Stressed vowels are somewhat lengthened, while unstressed vowels tend to be reduced to near-close vowels or an unclear schwa. (See also: vowel reduction in Russian.)
The Russian syllable structure can be quite complex with both initial and final consonant clusters of up to 4 consecutive sounds. Using a formula with V standing for the nucleus (vowel) and C for each consonant the structure can be described as follows:
(C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)
Clusters of four consonants are not very common, however, especially within a morpheme. Examples: взгляд (/vzɡlʲat/, "glance"), строительств (/strɐˈitʲɪlʲstf/, "of constructions").
[edit]Consonants
Labials Dental &
Alveolar Post-
alveolar Palatal Velar
Nasal hard /m/ /n/
soft /mʲ/ /nʲ/
Plosive hard /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /ɡ/
soft /pʲ/ /bʲ/ /tʲ/ /dʲ/ /kʲ/ [ɡʲ]
Affricate hard /ts/
soft /tɕ/
Fricative hard /f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ /ʂ/ /ʐ/ /x/ [ɣ]
soft /fʲ/ /vʲ/ /sʲ/ /zʲ/ /ɕː/ /ʑː/ [xʲ] [ɣʲ]
Trill hard /r/
soft /rʲ/
Approximant hard /l/
soft /lʲ/ /j/
Russian is notable for its distinction based on palatalization of most of the consonants. While /k/, /ɡ/, /x/ do have palatalized allophones [kʲ, ɡʲ, xʲ], only /kʲ/ might be considered a phoneme, though it is marginal and generally not considered distinctive (the only native minimal pair which argues for /kʲ/ to be a separate phoneme is "это ткёт" (/ˈɛtə tkʲot/, "it weaves")/"этот кот" (/ˈɛtət kot/, "this cat")). Palatalization means that the center of the tongue is raised during and after the articulation of the consonant. In the case of /tʲ/ and /dʲ/, the tongue is raised enough to produce slight frication (affricate sounds). These sounds: /t, d, ts, s, z, n and rʲ/ are dental, that is pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth rather than against the alveolar ridge.
[edit]Grammar

Main article: Russian grammar
This section requires expansion. (June 2008)
Russian has preserved an Indo-European synthetic-inflectional structure, although considerable levelling has taken place. Russian grammar encompasses
a highly synthetic morphology
a syntax that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements:[citation needed]
a polished vernacular foundation;
a Church Slavonic inheritance;
a Western European style.
The spoken language has been influenced by the literary one, but continues to preserve characteristic forms. The dialects show various non-standard grammatical features,[citation needed] some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms since discarded by the literary language.
[edit]Vocabulary



This page from an "ABC" book printed in Moscow in 1694 shows the letter П.
See History of the Russian language for an account of the successive foreign influences on Russian.
The total number of words in Russian is difficult to ascertain because of the ability to agglutinate and create manifold compounds, diminutives, etc. (see Word Formation under Russian grammar). The number of listed words or entries in some of the major dictionaries published during the last two centuries, and the total vocabulary of Alexander Pushkin (who is credited with greatly augmenting and codifying literary Russian), are as follows:[48][49]
Work Year Words Notes
Academic dictionary, I Ed. 1789–1794 43,257 Russian and Church Slavonic with some Old Russian vocabulary.
Academic dictionary, II Ed 1806–1822 51,388 Russian and Church Slavonic with some Old Russian vocabulary.
Dictionary of Pushkin's language 1810–1837 "21,000 The dictionary of virtually all words from his works was published in 1956–1961. Some consider his works contain 101,105.[50]
Academic dictionary, III Ed. 1847 114,749 Russian and Church Slavonic with Old Russian vocabulary.
Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language 1880–1882 195,844 44,000 entries lexically grouped; attempt to catalogue the full vernacular language.
Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language 1934–1940 85,289 Current language with some archaisms.
Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language 1950–1965
1991 (2nd ed.) 120,480 "Full" 17-volumed dictionary of the "modern" language. The second 20-volumed edition was begun in 1991, but not all volumes were finished until now.
Lopatin's dictionary 1999–2011 ≈180,000 Orthographic, current language, several editions
Great Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language 1998–2009 ≈130,000 Current language, the dictionary has many subsequent editions from the first one of 1998.
Note: The above numbers do not properly show the real quantity of words in Russian, as Russian dictionaries do not have a goal to collect all words of the language, but to establish normalized vocabulary of standard neutral style. They do not contain special technical and scientific terms, many lexical derivatives, colloquial and dialectical words, and slang.
[edit]Proverbs and sayings
Main articles: Russian proverbs and Russian sayings
The Russian language is replete with many hundreds of proverbs (пословица [pɐˈslovʲɪtsə]) and sayings (поговоркa [pəɡɐˈvorkə]). These were already tabulated by the 17th century and collected and studied in the 19th and 20th, with folk tales being especially fertile sources.
[edit]History and examples

Main article: History of the Russian language
See also: Reforms of Russian orthography


Russian minimarket in Limassol
The history of Russian language may be divided into the following periods.
Kievan period and feudal breakup
The Moscow period (15th–17th centuries)
Empire (18th–19th centuries)
Soviet period and beyond (20th century)
Judging by the historical records, by approximately 1000 AD the predominant ethnic group over much of modern European Russia, Ukraine and Belarus was the Eastern branch of the Slavs, speaking a closely related group of dialects. The political unification of this region into Kievan Rus' in about 880, from which modern Russia, Ukraine and Belarus trace their origins, established Old East Slavic as a literary and commercial language. It was soon followed by the adoption of Christianity in 988 and the introduction of the South Slavic Old Church Slavonic as the liturgical and official language. Borrowings and calques from Byzantine Greek began to enter the Old East Slavic and spoken dialects at this time, which in their turn modified the Old Church Slavonic as well.


The Ostromir Gospels of 1056 is the second oldest East Slavic book known, one of many medieval illuminated manuscripts preserved in the Russian National Library.
Dialectal differentiation accelerated after the breakup of Kievan Rus' in approximately 1100. On the territories of modern Belarus and Ukraine emerged Ruthenian and in modern Russia medieval Russian. They definitely became distinct since the 13th century, i.e. following the division of that land between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland and Hungary in the west and independent Novgorod and Pskov feudal republics plus numerous small duchies (which came to be vassals of the Tatars) in the east.
The official language in Moscow and Novgorod, and later, in the growing Muscovy, was Church Slavonic, which evolved from Old Church Slavonic and remained the literary language for centuries, until the Petrine age, when its usage became limited to biblical and liturgical texts. Russian developed under a strong influence of Church Slavonic until the close of the 17th century; afterwards the influence reversed, leading to corruption of liturgical texts.
The political reforms of Peter the Great (Пётр Вели́кий, Pyótr Velíkiy) were accompanied by a reform of the alphabet, and achieved their goal of secularization and Westernization. Blocks of specialized vocabulary were adopted from the languages of Western Europe. By 1800, a significant portion of the gentry spoke French daily, and German sometimes. Many Russian novels of the 19th century, e.g. Leo Tolstoy's (Лев Толсто́й) War and Peace, contain entire paragraphs and even pages in French with no translation given, with an assumption that educated readers would not need one.
The modern literary language is usually considered to date from the time of Alexander Pushkin (Алекса́ндр Пу́шкин) in the first third of the 19th century. Pushkin revolutionized Russian literature by rejecting archaic grammar and vocabulary (so called "высо́кий стиль" — "high style") in favor of grammar and vocabulary found in the spoken language of the time. Even modern readers of younger age may only experience slight difficulties understanding some words in Pushkin's texts, since relatively few words used by Pushkin have become archaic or changed meaning. In fact, many expressions used by Russian writers of the early 19th century, in particular Pushkin, Mikhail Lermontov (Михаи́л Ле́рмонтов), Nikolai Gogol (Никола́й Го́голь), Aleksander Griboyedov (Алекса́ндр Грибое́дов), became proverbs or sayings which can be frequently found even in modern Russian colloquial speech.

Winter Evening

Reading of excerpt of Pushkin’s "Winter Evening" (Зимний вечер), 1825.
Problems listening to this file? See media help.
Зи́мний ве́чер IPA: [ˈzʲimnʲɪj ˈvʲetɕɪr]
Бу́ря мгло́ю не́бо кро́ет, [ˈburʲə ˈmɡloju ˈnʲɛbə ˈkroɪt]
Ви́хри сне́жные крутя́; [ˈvʲixrʲɪ ˈsʲnʲɛʐnɨɪ kruˈtʲa]
То, как зверь, она́ заво́ет, [to kak zvʲerʲ ɐˈna zɐˈvoɪt]
То запла́чет, как дитя́, [to zɐˈplatɕɪt, kak dʲɪˈtʲa]
То по кро́вле обветша́лой [to pɐˈkrovlʲɪ ɐbvʲɪˈtʂaləj]
Вдруг соло́мой зашуми́т, [vdruk sɐˈloməj zəʂuˈmʲit]
То, как пу́тник запозда́лый, [to kak ˈputnʲɪk zəpɐˈzdalɨj]
К нам в око́шко застучи́т. [knam vɐˈkoʂkə zəstuˈtɕit]
The political upheavals of the early 20th century and the wholesale changes of political ideology gave written Russian its modern appearance after the spelling reform of 1918. Political circumstances and Soviet accomplishments in military, scientific and technological matters (especially cosmonautics), gave Russian a worldwide prestige, especially during the mid-20th century.
[edit]See also

Russia portal
Languages portal
[edit]Language description
History of the Russian language
List of Russian language topics
Russian alphabet
Russian grammar
Russian orthography
Russian phonology
[edit]Related languages
Church Slavonic language
East Slavic languages
Great Russian language
Old Church Slavonic language
Old East Slavic language
Slavic languages
[edit]Other
Computer russification
List of English words of Russian origin
Non-native pronunciations of English
Reforms of Russian orthography
Romanization of Russian
Runglish
Russian humour
Russian literature
Russian proverbs
Volapuk encoding
Slavic Voice of America
[edit]References

^ Russian at Ethnologue (16th ed., 2009)
^ "How do you say that in Russian?". Expert. 2006. Retrieved 2008-02-26.
^ Article 68. Constitution of the Russian Federation
^ Article 17. Constitution of the Republic of Belarus
^ Article 7. Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan
^ (Russian) Статья 10. Конституция Кыргызской Республики
^ Article 2. Constitution of Tajikistan
^ a b Abkhazia and South Ossetia are only partially recognized countries
^ (Russian) Статья 6. Конституция Республики Абхазия
^ (Russian) Статья 4. Конституция Республики Южная Осетия
^ Article 12. Constitution of the Pridnestrovskaia Moldavskaia Respublica
^ Article 16. Legal code of Gagauzia (Gagauz-Yeri)
^ (Russian) Глава 3. Конституция Автономной Республики Крым
^ "Russian Language Institute". Ruslang.ru. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
^ "New York State Legislature".
^ "Russian Language Enjoying a Boost in Post-Soviet States". Gallup.com. August 1, 2008. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
^ Арефьев, Александр (2006). "Падение статуса русского языка на постсоветском пространстве" (in Russian). Демоскоп Weekly (251).
^ "The World's Most Widely Spoken Languages". Saint Ignatius High School. Cleveland, Ohio. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
^ Timberlake 2004, p. 17.
^ Sussex & Cubberley 2006, pp. 477–478, 480.
^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911".
^ "Закон СССР от 24.04.1990 О языках народов СССР" (The 1990 USSR Law about the Languages of the USSR) (Russian)
^ http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/igraph/MakeGraph.asp?gr_type=5&gr_width=600&gr_height=400&gr_fontsize=12&menu=y&PLanguage=2&pxfile=RV02222012112275739.px&wonload=600&honload=400&rotate=
^ a b c d "Population census of Estonia 2000. Population by mother tongue, command of foreign languages and citizenship". Statistics Estonia. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
^ "Kazakhstan's News Bulletin, April 20, 2007". Kazakhstan News Bulletin. April 20, 2007. Retrieved May 16, 2009.
^ "Population by other languages, which they know, by county and municipality". Statistics Lithuania. Retrieved 2009-05-16.
^ "Population by mother tongue and more widespread language skills in 2000". Statistics Latvia. Retrieved 2009-05-16.
^ http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/pdf/doc631_en.pdf
^ Brooke, James (February 15, 2005). "For Mongolians, E Is for English, F Is for Future". The New York Times. New York Times. Retrieved May 16, 2009.
^ "Русский язык в Монголии стал обязательным" (in Russian). Новый Регион. September 21, 2006. Retrieved May 16, 2009.
^ [1]
^ Language Use in the United States: 2007, census.gov
^ Vgl. Bernhard Brehmer: Sprechen Sie Qwelja? Formen und Folgen russisch-deutscher Zweisprachigkeit in Deutschland. In: Tanja Anstatt (Hrsg.): Mehrsprachigkeit bei Kindern und Erwachsenen. Tübingen 2007, S. 163–185, hier: 166 f., basierend auf dem Migrationsbericht 2005 des Bundesamtes für Migration und Flüchtlinge. (PDF)
^ Russia's Language Could Be Ticket in for Migrants Gallup Retrieved on May 26, 2010
^ "Об исполнении Российской Федерацией Рамочной конвенции о защите национальных меньшинств. Альтернативный доклад НПО." (in Russian) (Doc). MINELRES. p. 80. Retrieved 2009-05-16.
^ 2006/2007 figures (Russian) Как соблюдается в Украине языковая Хартия?
^ "Russia to raise language concerns". BBC. September 4, 2003. Retrieved May 15, 2009.
^ "В Риге прошла массовая манифестация против перевода русских школ на латышский язык" (in Russian). NEWSru.com. March 10, 2004. Retrieved May 15, 2009.
^ Мнения и взгляды населения Украины в мае 2009 FOM-Ukraine Retrieved on 08-03-2009
^ The language situation in Ukraine Retrieved on 08-03-2009
^ After Georgia, Crimea? Some fear Russia's goals, Kyiv Post (September 29, 2008)
^ Ukraine-Russia tensions rise in Crimea, Los Angeles Times (September 28, 2008)
^ David Dalby. 1999-2000. The Linguasphere Register of the World's Languages and Speech Communities. Linguasphere Press. Pg. 442.
^ a b c d e f g Sussex & Cubberley 2006, pp. 521–526.
^ "The Language of the Russian Village" (in Russian). Retrieved 2011-11-10.
^ "The Language of the Russian Village" (in Russian). Retrieved 2011-11-10.
^ Caloni, Wanderley (2007-02-15). "RusKey: mapping the Russian keyboard layout into the Latin alphabets". The Code Project. Retrieved 2011-01-28.
^ What types of dictionaries exist? from www.gramota.ru (Russian)
^ A catalogue of Russian explanatory dictionaries (Russian)
^ http://www.stihi.ru/2010/03/24/1825
The following serve as references for both this article and the related articles listed below that describe Russian:
[edit]In English
Comrie, Bernard, Gerald Stone, Maria Polinsky (1996). The Russian Language in the Twentieth Century (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-824066-X.
Carleton, T.R. (1991). Introduction to the Phonological History of the Slavic Languages. Columbus, Ohio: Slavica Press.
Cubberley, P. (2002). Russian: A Linguistic Introduction (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79641-5.
Sussex, Roland; Cubberley, Paul (2006). The Slavic languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22315-7.
Timberlake, Alan (2004). A Reference Grammar of Russian. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77292-1
Timberlake, Alan (1993). "Russian". In Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G. The Slavonic languages. London, New York: Routledge. pp. 827–886. ISBN 0-415-04755-2.
Wade, Terence (2000). Holman, Michael. ed. A Comprehensive Russian Grammar (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-20757-0.
[edit]In Russian
Жуковская Л. П. (отв. ред.) Древнерусский литературный язык и его отношение к старославянскому. — М.: «Наука», 1987.
Иванов В. В. Историческая грамматика русского языка. — М.: «Просвещение», 1990.
Новиков Л. А. Современный русский язык: для высшей школы. -— М.: Лань, 2003.
Филин Ф. П. О словарном составе языка Великорусского народа. // Вопросы языкознания. — М., 1982, № 5. — С. 18—28
[edit]External links

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قس چینی

俄语（русский язык，['ru.skʲi jɪ.'zɨk]  听（帮助•信息））是斯拉夫语族中使用人数最多的语言。属于斯拉夫语族的东斯拉夫语支。
主要在俄罗斯和前苏联的其它成员国中使用，在华沙条约的成员国裡曾經被学校广泛作为第一外语教学。在苏联时期，俄语在其加盟共和国中被大大的强调。虽然很多这些前苏联的国家现在开始强调当地语言的重要性，但是俄语仍然是这些地区最广泛使用的语言，并且也是这些国家进行交流时使用的语言。挪威俄语是俄语和挪威语的混合语。
目录 [显示]
[编辑]历史

現代俄羅斯人祖先的母語仍然是古教會斯拉夫語，在基輔羅斯一帶十分通用。最早的文字記載是大約公元10世紀中葉，在斯摩棱斯克州一條名叫Gnezdovo的小村落所發現的雙耳瓶。
[编辑]系属分类

俄語是屬於印歐語系斯拉夫語的一種，從口語角度來看，它的近親是烏克蘭語及白俄羅斯語，都是東斯拉夫語支。在烏克蘭及白俄羅斯境內很多地方，這幾種語言可以互換，在某些地方這種傳統雙語語境導致語言混合。
[编辑]地理分布



世界上使用俄語的地區
俄语是联合国和俄罗斯的官方语言之一，也是中华人民共和国承认的少数民族正式语言之一（俄罗斯族使用）。直至1917年，俄语是俄羅斯帝國的唯一官方語言，但在苏联時期，每個成員共和國都有自己的官方語言，俄語就成為蘇聯一體角色的語言。在1991年以後，獨立國家鼓勵了他們本國的母語，因而扭轉了俄語独大的狀況，雖則它作為全國溝通的角色不變。
在拉脫維亞，有超過三分之一的俄語人口，主要來自兩次大戰前的俄國和前蘇聯移民。而俄語在課堂的使用依然在辯論中。
而在愛沙尼亞，蘇維埃時代的移民和他們的後裔構成國家的當前人口的大約四分之一左右。
在立陶宛，俄語人口代表少於十分之一國家的整體人口。然而，大約80%波羅的海地區的人口能用基本俄語交談。而在芬蘭，曾經是俄國的一部分，仍然有幾個俄語社區。
在20世紀，俄語廣泛被華沙條約的成員學校使用，這些國家包括波蘭，保加利亞，捷克，斯洛伐克，匈牙利，羅馬尼亞和阿爾巴尼亞。但是，年輕的一代通常都不流利，因為俄語不再在學校使用。在中国与苏联友好期间，俄语被作为学校的第一外语教授，后来被英语取代。此外，由於受到蘇聯影響，一些亞洲國家譬如老撾、越南、柬埔寨和蒙古，依然會教俄語。而在阿富汗的幾個部落，俄語仍然被使用作為混合語。
在以色列，至少750,000前蘇聯的猶太移民使用俄語（1999年人口調查）。以色列的新聞、網站及出版物亦经常使用俄語。
在北美洲，有相當大的俄語社區，特別是在美國和加拿大的市區如紐約、洛杉磯、舊金山、多倫多、邁阿密、芝加哥和克利夫蘭郊區的里士滿高地。單在紐約、洛杉磯俄語人口估計達50萬人。他們發布他們自己的報紙，和居住在自足的區域（特別是在1960年代開始的移民）。
根據美國2000年人口調查，美國有1.50%人口說俄語，即大約四百二十萬人，在美國語言的第十位。
從20世紀的初期，西歐亦有不少講俄語的移民。德國、英國、西班牙、法國、義大利、比利時、希臘、巴西和土耳其講俄語的社區共有三百萬人。
[编辑]官方語言


以色列本•古里安國際機場公廁內小便斗上方的告示牌，上有英語、希伯來語、俄語及阿拉伯語
俄語是俄羅斯、白俄羅斯、哈薩克、吉爾吉斯斯坦、未得國際承認的德涅斯特河沿岸共和國、南奧塞梯、阿布哈茲的官方語言。它也是聯合國六個官方語言之一。在俄羅斯及前蘇聯境內，對於以俄語為母語或第二語言的人士來說，用俄語上課是熱門的選擇。
雖然俄羅斯族人口在俄羅斯佔了78%，在白俄羅斯佔10%，在哈薩克佔26%，在烏克蘭佔17%，在吉爾吉斯斯坦佔9%，在摩爾多瓦佔6%，在阿塞拜疆佔2%，在格魯吉亞佔1.5%，在亞美尼亞及塔吉克佔了不足1%，但是以俄語授課的學生在俄羅斯佔了97%，在白俄羅斯佔75%，在哈薩克佔41%，在烏克蘭佔25%，在吉爾吉斯斯坦佔21%，在摩爾多瓦佔7%，在阿塞拜疆佔7%，在格魯吉亞佔5%，在亞美尼亞及塔吉克佔2%。
儘管政府嘗試減少以俄語教授的科目，拉脫維亞、愛沙尼亞、立陶宛仍然有學校以俄語教學。
[编辑]字母

主条目：俄语字母
俄语的书写系统使用西里尔字母的修订版。共有33个字母。有印刷体和手写体的区别。分为元音和辅音两种。辅音又分为清辅音（声带不振动）和浊辅音（声带震动）。此外，俄语的辅音还可以分为软辅音和硬辅音，二者发音动作基本相同，区别主要在于发软辅音时，舌中部需要向上颚抬起。
下面是一个俄语字母表，列出了所有字母的大小写及其字母名称。
Аа
а Бб
бэ Вв
вэ Гг
гэ Дд
дэ Ее
йэ Ёё
йо Жж
жэ Зз
зэ Ии
и Йй短и
Кк
ка Лл
эль Мм
эм Нн
эн Оо
о Пп
пэ Рр
эр Сс
эс Тт
тэ Уу
у Фф
эф
Хх
ха Цц
цэ Чч
че Шш
ша Щщ
ща ъ硬音符号 Ыы
ы ь软音符号 Ээ
э Юю
йу Яя
йа
[编辑]发音

俄语的语音系统发源于斯拉夫语系，但在早期历史上改变很多，大约1400年大致成型。
它有5个元音，根据前面的辅音是否发颚音（硬顎音化）写成不同的字母。典型辅音成对出现：普通型和颚音型。传统上叫做硬辅音和软辅音。（硬辅音通常軟颚音化，特别是在后元音前面，虽然在一些方言里面颚音化只局限于硬音/l/）。标准俄语基于聖彼得堡方言，有很强的重音和适度的音调变化。重音元音有一点拉长，而非重音元音倾向于减少成闭元音或者模糊元音/ə/。 俄语裏一個音節裏的聲母和韻尾最多可以含四个輔音，所以音节结构会很复杂。用公式表示如下（V代表元音，C代表辅音）： (C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)
[编辑]辅音表
双唇音 唇齿音 齿音 &
齿槽音 后齿槽音 上颚音 软腭音
鼻音 硬音 /m/ /n/
软音 /mʲ/ /nʲ/
爆破音 硬音 /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/
软音 /pʲ/ /bʲ/ /tʲ/ /dʲ/ /kʲ/* [gʲ]
塞擦音 硬音 /ʦ/
软音 /tɕ/
摩擦音 硬音 /f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ /ʂ/ /ʐ/ /x/
软音 /fʲ/ /vʲ/ /sʲ/ /zʲ/ /ɕː/* /ʑː/* [xʲ]
颤音 硬音 /r/
软音 /rʲ/
靠近音 硬音 /l/
软音 /lʲ/ /j/
因为多数辅音的颚音化，俄语显得很独特，虽然 /k/, /g/, /x/ 确实有颚音化的音位变体 [kʲ, gʲ, xʲ], 只有 /kʲ/ 能被当成音素，但它很模糊，通常不被当作独立的（唯一的的反例是最小组合"это ткёт"/"этот кот"）。 颚音化意思是发辅音前和发音的时候升起舌头的中部。在 /tʲ/ 和 /dʲ/ 的情况下，将舌头升起直到能够产生轻微的摩擦（塞擦音）。这些音：/t, d, ʦ, s, z, n 和 rʲ/ 是齿音，发音的时候用舌头尖顶住牙齿而不是齿槽部分。
[编辑]语法

主条目：俄语语法
俄语中的词分为10类：
有词形变化：
名词：комната（房间）
形容词：большой（大的）
数词：один（一），первый（第一）
代词：он（他），это（这个）
动词：слушать（听）
无词形变化
副词：хорошо（好）
前置词：на（在...上）
连接词：и（和）
语气词：да（是）
感叹词：ах（哎呀）
名词和形容词有单复数六格：主格（1格）、宾格（4格）、与格（3格）、属格（2格）、工具格（5格）和方位格（6格，前置格），动词有完成体和未完成体，还有形动词和副动词之分。
俄语名词变格（举例说明，不完全）
格 房子 （阳性） 房间（阴性） 谁？ 什么？
主格 дом комнат-а кто? что?
属格 дом-а комнат-ы кого? чего?
与格 дом-у комнат-е кому? чему?
宾格 дом комнат-у кого? что?
工具格 дом-ом комнат-ой кем? чем?
方位格 (о) дом-е (о) комнат-е (о) ком? (о) чём?
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沃拉普克编码
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维基词典上的词义解释：
俄语

您可以在維基教科書中查找此百科条目的相關電子教程：
俄语

維基百科有此種語言版本：
俄语维基百科
使用Google自动将俄语翻译成简体中文
使用Google自动将俄语翻译成繁体中文
完全自由的俄语字典
Russian-PLUS.com - online video lessons and Russian Grammar
MasterRussian.com - vocabulary words and phrases, tips, hand-picked links
Vasmer's Etymological Dictionary of Russian language
"GRAMOTA". An educational/reference site on the Russian language, supported by the Russian government. (In Russian)
SIL Ethnologue Report for Russian
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