سالنما آلماناک و ریشه آن

سالنَما گونه‌ای نشریه سالانه است که تقویم کاری یک سازمان، شرکت یا پروژه را در خود دارد. این نشریه شامل اطلاعات آب و هوا، برنامهٔ کاشت (در کشاورزی)، جدول جزر و مد و شامل اطلاعات دسته‌بندی‌شده در زمینه‌های تخصصی است که معمولاً روی یک تقویم پیاده سازی شده‌است.
داده‌های ستاره‌شناسی و اطلاعات مختلف آماری در این نشریه‌ها مانند ساعت طلوع و غروب خورشید و ماه، ماه‌گرفتگی یافت می‌شود.
در کشورهای مسیحی، سالنماها شامل رویدادهای کلیساها، دادگاه‌ها، فهرست برنامه زمانبندی و چیزهای از این دست نیز هست.[۱]
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رده: کتاب‌های مرجع

قس انگلیسی

An almanac (also archaically spelled almanack and almanach) is an annual publication that includes information such as weather forecasts, farmers' planting dates, tide tables, and tabular information in a particular field or fields often arranged according to the calendar etc. Astronomical data and various statistics are also found in almanacs, such as the times of the rising and setting of the sun and moon, eclipses, hours of full tide, stated festivals of churches, terms of courts, lists of all types, timelines, and more.

Contents [show]
[edit]Etymology

The etymology of the word is unclear, but there are several theories:

One suggestion is that alamanac was originally an Arabic word, al-manākh, meaning the climate, this refers to the natural change in weather. In the modern sense too an almanac, or almanakh, is the average weather forecast for a certain period of time that is characterized by relatively stable weather conditions covering a specific area.
However, the earliest documented use of the word in any language is in Latin in 1267 by Roger Bacon, where it meant a set of tables detailing movements of heavenly bodies including the moon.
One etymology report says: "The ultimate source of the word is obscure. Its first syllable, al-, and its general relevance to medieval science and technology, strongly suggest an Arabic origin, but no convincing candidate has been found."[1]
Another report similarly says of Almanac: "First seen in Roger Bacon. Apparently from Spanish Arabic, al-manakh, but this is not an Arabic word [interpret: this is not a word found in Arabic texts]....The word remains a puzzle."[2]
The New English Dictionary on Historical Principles similarly says "the word has no etymon in Arabic" but indirect circumstantial evidence "points to a Spanish Arabic al-manākh".[3]
The reason why the proposed Arabic word is speculatively spelled al-manākh is that the spelling occurred as "almanach" as well as almanac (and Roger Bacon used both spellings). The earliest use of the word was in the context of astronomy calendars.

The prestige of the Tables of Toledo and other medieval Arabic astronomy works at the time of the word's emergence in the West, together with the absence of the word in Arabic, suggest it may have been invented in the West, and is pseudo-Arabic. At that time in the West, it would have been prestigious to attach an Arabic appellation to a set of astronomical tables. Also around that time, prompted by that motive, the Latin writer Pseudo-Geber wrote under an Arabic pseudonym. (The later alchemy word alkahest is known to be pseudo-Arabic.)

[edit]Early almanacs


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A page from the Almanac for the Hindu year 1871-72.
The origin of the almanac can be traced back to ancient Babylonian astronomy, when tables of planetary periods were produced in order to predict lunar and planetary phenomena.[4]

The precursor to the almanac was the Greek astronomical and meteorological calendar, the parapegma, an inscribed stone on which the days of the month were indicated by movable pegs inserted into bored holes. According to Diogenes Laërtius, Parapegma was the title of a book by Democritus. Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer (2nd century) wrote a treatise, Phaseis—"phases of fixed stars and collection of weather-changes" is the translation of its full title—the core of which is a parapegma, a list of dates of seasonally regular weather changes, first appearances and last appearances of stars or constellations at sunrise or sunset, and solar events such as solstices, all organized according to the solar year. With the astronomical computations were expected weather phenomena, composed as a digest of observations made by various authorities of the past. Parapegmata had been composed for centuries. Similar treatises called Zij were later composed in medieval Islamic astronomy.

Ptolemy believed that astronomical phenomena caused the changes in seasonal weather; his explanation of why there was not an exact correlation of these events was that the physical influences of other heavenly bodies also came into play. Hence for him, weather prediction was a special division of astrology.[5]

The modern almanac differs from Babylonian, Ptolemaic and Zij tables in the sense that "the entries found in the almanacs give directly the positions of the celestial bodies and need no further computation", in contrast to the more common "auxiliary astronomical tables" based on Ptolemy's Almagest. The earliest known almanac in this modern sense is the Almanac of Azarqueil written in 1088 by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Latinized as Arzachel) in Toledo, al-Andalus. The work provided the true daily positions of the sun, moon and planets for four years from 1088 to 1092, as well as many other related tables. A Latin translation and adaptation of the work appeared as the Tables of Toledo in the 12th century and the Alfonsine tables in the 13th century.[6][verification needed]

After almanacs were devised, people still saw little difference between predicting the movements of the stars and tides, and predicting the future in the divination sense. Early almanacs therefore contained general horoscopes, as well as the more concrete information. In 1150 Solomon Jarchus created such an almanac considered to be among the first modern almanacs. Copies of 12th century almanacs are found in the British Museum, and in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In 1300, Petrus de Dacia created an almanac (Savilian Library, Oxford). This was the same year Roger Bacon, OFM, produced his as well. In 1327 Walter de Elvendene created an almanac and later on John Somers of Oxford, in 1380. In 1386 Nicholas de Lynne, Oxford produced an almanac. In 1457 the first printed almanac was published at Mainz, by Gutenberg (eight years before the famous Bible). Regio-Montanus produced an almanac in 1472 (Nuremberg, 1472), which was continued in print for several centuries in many editions. In 1497 the Sheapheard’s Kalendar, translated from French (Richard Pynson) became the first English printed almanac.

By the second half of the 16th century, yearly almanacs were being produced in English by men such as Anthony Askham, Thomas Buckminster, John Dade and Gabriel Frende. In the 17th century, English almanacs were bestsellers, second only to the Bible; by the middle of the century, 400,000 almanacs were being produced annually (a complete listing can be found in the English Short Title Catalogue). Richard Allestree (who is not the same as Richard Allestree) wrote one of the more popular English almanacs, producing yearly volumes from 1617 to 1643, but his is by no means the earliest or the longest-running almanac. In British America, William Pierce of Harvard College published the first American almanac entitled, An Almanac for New England for the year 1639 Cambridge, Massachusetts. Harvard became the first center for the annual publication of almanacs with various editors including Samuel Danforth, Oakes, Cheever, Chauncey, Dudley, Foster, et alia. An almanac maker going under the pseudonym of Poor Richard, Knight of the Burnt Island began to publish Poor Robin's Almanack one of the first comic almanacs that parodied these horoscopes in its 1664 issue, saying "This month we may expect to hear of the Death of some Man, Woman, or Child, either in Kent or Christendom." Other noteworthy comic almanacs include those published from 1687-1702 by John Tully of Saybrook, Connecticut.

The most important early American almanacs were made from 1726-1775 by Nathaniel Ames of Dedham, Massachusetts. A few years later James Franklin began publishing the Rhode-Island Almanack beginning in 1728. Five years later his brother Benjamin Franklin began publishing Poor Richard's Almanack from 1733-1758. Benjamin Banneker improved on the Almanac from 1792-1797.

[edit]Contemporary almanacs

Currently published almanacs such as Whitaker's Almanack have expanded their scope and contents beyond that of their historical counterparts. Modern almanacs include a comprehensive presentation of statistical and descriptive data covering the entire world. Contents also include discussions of topical developments and a summary of recent historical events. Other currently published almanacs (ca. 2006) include TIME Almanac with Information Please, World Almanac and Book of Facts, The Farmer's Almanac and The Old Farmer's Almanac. In 2007, Harrowsmith Country Life Magazine launched the first Canadian Almanac, written in Canada, with all-Canadian content.

Major topics covered by almanacs (reflected by their tables of contents) include: geography, government, demographics, agriculture, economics and business, health and medicine, religion, mass media, transportation, science and technology, sport, and awards/prizes.

Other examples include The Almanac of American Politics published by the National Journal, The Almanac of American Literature, and The Almanac of British Politics.

[edit]List of almanacs by country of publication

Brazil

Almanaque Abril
Almanaque do Pensamento
Almanaque Santo Antônio
Almanaque Sadol (freely distributed on Drugstores)
Canada

Harrowsmith's Truly Canadian Almanac (1st Edition, September 2007)
Colombia

Almanaque Bristol
Belgium

De Druivelaar
France

Quid
Germany

Fischer Weltalmanach
Greece

Kazamias
India

Kalnirnay
Netherlands

Enkhuizer Almanak
Deventer Almanak
Nieropper Almanak
Portugal

O Verdadeiro Almanaque Borda D'Água
Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka Almanac
United Kingdom

Astronomical Almanac
Old Moore's Almanack
Whitaker's Almanack
Wisden Cricketers' Almanack
Schott's Almanac
United States of America

Astronomical Almanac
The New York Times Almanac
Old Farmer's Almanac
TIME Almanac with Information Please
World Almanac and Book of Facts
Town & Country Farmer's Almanac
Poor Will's Almanack
The Farmer's Almanac
Leavitt's Farmers Almanack
Harris' Farmer's Almanac
The Writing Code Almanac
Country Accents Farmer's Almanac
A Sand County Almanac
The Almanac for Farmers and City Folk
J. Gruber's Garden and Farm Almanac
Blum's Farmer's and Planter's Almanac
[edit]See also

Yearbook
List of almanacs
Gazetteer
Tonalamatl, the Aztec divinatory almanac
Panchangam
Panjika, Hindu astrological almanac in Assamese, Bengali and Oriya
Tung shing the Chinese almanac
Encyclopedia
Kalnirnay
[edit]Almanac calculators

Dirck Rembrantsz van Nierop
Pieter Rembrantsz van Nierop
Nostradamus
Jan Albertsz van Dam
Dirck Jansz van Dam
Meyndert van Dam
Jacob de Gelder
Mattheus van Nispen
Isaac Haringhuysen
John Partridge
Lucas Jansz Sinck
Andreas van Luchtenburg
Jan van Dam
Theodor Caesmes
A. de Vries
F. Kaiser
A. Schoutens
A. de Grave
[edit]Notes

^ Quote from the book "Word Origins" by John Ayto (2005).
^ Quote from An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English, by Ernest Weekley (1921).
Similarly, An Etymological Dictionary by Walter W. Skeat (1888) concludes that the construction of an Arabic source for almanac "is not satisfactory".
^ "Almanac" in New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (which has an extra "note as to the origin and history of the word almanac").
^ Glick, Livesey & Wallis 2005, p. 29
^ "Ptolemy's Astronomical Works (other than the Almagest)". Archived from the original on 2007-02-08. Retrieved 2007-04-16.
^ Glick, Livesey & Wallis 2005, p. 30
[edit]References

Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-96930-1.
[edit]External links

American Almanacs collection, Ball State University Digital Media Repository, includes representative samples for almanacs published in the United States primarily during the 18th century.
Time, Tide and Tonics: The Patent Medicine Almanac in America. United States National Library of Medicine.
Texts on Wikisource:
“The Plan of the Export Almanac Publishing Company,” The New York Times, January 5, 1888
"Almanac". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Almanac". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
"Almanacs". The New Student's Reference Work. Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co. 1914.
"Almanac". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
"Almanac". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
The World almanac and encyclopedia (1917) - Typical XX century almanac, in times before Internet, TV, and widely usage of radio, however covering the World from American point of view
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