دوره هی آن

دوره هِی‌آن (به ژاپنی: 平安時代, Heian jidai) در تاریخ ژاپن فاصله زمانی سال‌های ۷۹۴ تا ۱۱۸۵ میلادی را در بر می‌گیرد.[۱] با دوره هِی‌آن دوران تاریخ باستانی ژاپن به آخر می‌رسد و عصر فئودالی آغاز می‌شود. نام این دوره از پایتخت آن هِی‌آن‌کیو می‌آید که امروز کیوتو نامیده می‌شود. از دوره نارا تا به امروز، قدرت واقعی هیچگاه در دستان امپراتور نبوده است و سران نظامی (شوگونها) و نجبای دربار اقتدار حقیقی را در دست داشته‌اند. خاندان فوجی‌وارا قدرتمندترین خانواده در دوره هِی‌آن بود.

محتویات [نمایش]
خاندان فوجی‌وارا [ویرایش]

خاندان فوجی‌وارا برای چندین قرن از طریق ازدواج با اعضای خانواده امپراتور و با تصرف مقام‌های مهم سیاسی، صحنه سیاسی کشور را اداره می‌کرد. حق حاکمیت در ظاهر متعلق به امپراتور بود ولی این خاندان فوجی‌وارا بودند که در عمل اقتدار سیاسی کشور را در دست داشتند. آن‌ها برای تثبیت قدرت خود ناچار بودند که طبقات نظامی را تقویت کنند و اینچنین بود که آرام آرام نظامی‌ها به دربار راه یافتند و طبقه سامورایی ظهور کرد. به تدریج توان خاندان فوجی‌وارا رو به افول گذاشت و آشفتگی‌هایی در نظام سیاسی کشور پدیدار شد. بسیاری از زمین‌داران برای حفاظت از اموال خود شروع به استخدام سامورایی‌ها کردند و این گونه بود که طبقه نظامی، به ویژه در شرق ژاپن، به نفوذ و اقتداری روزافزون دست یافت.[۲]

مذهب و زبان [ویرایش]

در این دوران بودیسم، تائوئیسم و آیین بودایی، به ویژه شاخه مهایانه آن، گسترش بیشتری پیدا کرد. هر چند که زبان چینی زبان رسمی دربار بود، اما معرفی سیستم هجانمای کانا که هیراگانا و کاتاکانا از آن ریشه گرفت، سبب پیشرفت روزافزون ادبیات ژاپنی شد.

زیبایی [ویرایش]

در این دوره مظهر خوبی زیبایی بود، نه بخشندگی و صداقت. زیبایی برای مردان داشتن ریش کوتاه نوک‌دار بود. زنان صورت خود را با پودر سفید می‌کردند و گونه‌ها را سرخاب می زدند. زنان همچنین لب‌ها را ماتیک سرخ می‌زدند، به گونه‌ای که کوچکتر به نظر بیاید و خط ابرو را بالا می‌بردند.

پانویس [ویرایش]

↑ «دوره هِی‌آن، دانشنامه بریتانیکا».
↑ «دوره نارا و هِی‌آن ۱۱۸۵-۷۱۰ ,japan-guide.com».
منابع [ویرایش]

«ویکی‌پدیای انگلیسی».
این یک نوشتار خُرد پیرامون ژاپن است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.
[نمایش]
ن • ب • و
امپراتوران امپراتوری ژاپن
[نمایش]
ن • ب • و
موضوعات ژاپن
رده‌ها: دوره هی‌آن تاریخ ژاپن

تاریخ ژاپن

تاریخ ژاپن

پارینه سنگی ۳۵٬۰۰۰-۱۴٬۰۰۰ ق.م.
دوره جومون ۱۴٬۰۰۰-۴۰۰ ق.م.
دوره یایویی ۴۰۰ ق.م.۲۵۰ ب.م
دوره کوفون ۲۵۰–۵۳۸
دوره آسوکا ۵۳۸–۷۱۰
دوره نارا ۷۱۰–۷۹۴
دوره هِی‌آن ۷۹۴–۱۱۸۵
دوره کاماکورا
۱۱۸۵–۱۳۳۳
تجدید حیات کن‌مو
۱۳۳۳–۱۳۳۶
دوره موروماچی (آشی‌کاگا)
۱۳۳۶–۱۵۷۳
دوره نان‌بوکو-چو
۱۳۳۶–۱۳۹۲
دوره سن‌گوکو
۱۴۷۶–۱۵۷۳
دوره آزوچی-مومویاما
۱۵۶۸–۱۶۰۳
دوره تجاری نان‌بان
دوره ادو (توکوگاوا)
۱۶۰۳–۱۸۶۸
باکوماتسو
دوره مِی‌جی ۱۸۶۸–۱۹۱۲
تجدید حیات مِی‌جی
دوره تای‌شو ۱۹۱۲–۱۹۲۶
ژاپن در جنگ جهانی اول
دوره شووا ۱۹۲۶–۱۹۸۹
نظامی‌گری ژاپن
اشغال ژاپن
دوره هِی‌سه‌ی ۱۹۸۹ تا امروز

قس عربی

فترة هییآن (یالیابانیة: 平安時代) ما بین (794-1185 م.): من فترات التاریخ الیابانی.
محتویات [اعرض]
[عدل]مقدمة

حملت فترة هییآن (平安時代) معها عهداً من الرخاء دام حوالی 350 سنة. مع بدایة القرن التاسع، استطاع البلاط الإمبراطوری أن یبسط هیمنته على کامل الجزر الرئیسیة للأرخبیل الیابانی، الاستثناء الوحید کان جزیرة هوکایدو (北海道)، شمال هنشو إلا أن هذا لم یمنع من قیام حملات عسکریة منظمة للحد من سیطرة الأهالی المحلیین أو مایعرف باسم الـآینو (蝦夷)، السکان الأصلیین للجزیرة.
[عدل]هیمنة الفوجی-وارا

ابتداءً من النصف الثانی من القرن التاسع، أخذت السلطة الحقیقة فی الإفلات من العائلة الحاکمة وأصبحت بین أیدی الـفوجی-وارا (藤原). . تمکن أفراد هذه العائلة من وضع سیاسة سمحت لهم بالسیطرة على اثنین من المناصب الحساسة فی الدولة، منصب الوصی أو الـسیشو (摂政) -کان یتولى أمر الإمبراطور قبل بلوغه سن الرشد- ومنصب الحاجب (کبیر المستشارین) أو الـکانباکو (関白) -کان یتولى شؤون الإمبراطور بعد سن الرشد-. عندما توفى الإمبراطور مونتوکو (文徳天皇) سنة 858 م. تارکاً العرش للإمبراطور سه-ئیوا (清和天皇) الذی کان عمره ثمان سنوات، أصبح المجال أمام جده فوجی-وارا نو یوشی-فوسا مفتوحاً، لیستولى على مقالید الحکم مع اتخاذه لقب الوصی، مرسخاً بذلک لعادة استمرت حتى نهایة القرن العاشر. منذ ذلک العهد سیطرت العائلة على کل المقالید الرسمیة فی البلاط ثم امتدت السیطرة حتى شملت الإدارة. دأبت هذه العائلة جیلاً بعد جیل على تزویج إحدى بناتها من ابن الإمبراطور الحالی، فکانوا کلما ولد صبی جدید یقومون بعقد قرانه على بنت من بنات الـفوجی-وار. یقومون بعدها بإجبار الإمبراطور على التنازل لصالح ابنه والذی غالباً ما یکون حدیث السن، فیتم وضعه تحت وصایة کبیر عائلة فوجی وارا.
تمیزت فترة الـفوجی-وارا بتطور ثقافة وطنیة یابانیة متحررة من التأثیرات الکوریة والصینیة. کان عهد فوجی-وارا نو میتشیناغا (藤原道長) من أبرز الفترات التی عرفها الیابان أثناء حکم هذه العائلة. عاشت الثقافة الوطنیة أزهى عصورها فی بلاط فترة هیی-آن. فی المیدان الأدبی برزت نساء أدیبات مثل موراساکی شیکیبو (紫 式部)، صاحبة قصة جنجی (源氏物語)، أو شیئـی شوناغون (清少納言) ح (965-؟؟؟؟ م.).
عرفت الفترة أیضاً ضعفاً للإدارة المرکزیة، فأثر ذلک على الجانب الاقتصادی. کانت اثنتان من أهم الطوائف البوذیة آنذاک: تندائی وشنغون من أهم المستفیدین من هذا الضعف، فتمکنتا من الحصول على أراض شاسعة، ثم نحا رجال الطبقة الحاکمة هذا المنحى فاتخذوا لأنفسهم مناطق خاصة، قاموا بإدارتها بأنفسهم، وکانوا بالطبع معفیین من عبء الضرائب. ثم بلغ ضعف البلاط حداً جعل معه أحد رجال عشیرة الـتائیرا یعلن نفسه إمبراطورا على البلاد، وقعت هذه الأحداث سنة 940 م. کان هذا منذرا لحوادث أخطر ستقع بعدها. أصبحت کل عشیرة تسیطر على منطقة، تقوم بتسییر الأمور بنفسها وباستقلالیة عن الحکم المرکزی. ثم تطورت الأمور فأصبحت بعض هذه العشائر تطمح إلى أن توسع من رقعة سیطرتها، فدخلت فی حروب مع العشائر الأخرى.
[عدل]الحروب الأهلیة

انتهت مرحلة سیطرة الـفوجی-وارا سنة 1028 م، مع موت میتشیناغا. ثم ومنذ منتصف القرن الحادی عشر، بدأت العائلة فی فقدان سیطرتها على مقالید الحکم. مع موت الإمبراطور غو رِئی-زائی أو رِئی-زائی الثانی (後冷泉天皇) سنة 1068 م.، لم یکن بین أفراد هذه العائلة شخص فی سن تسمح له بلعب دور قیادی. عاد اللقب بعدها إلى الإمبراطور غو سانجو أو سانجو الثانی (後三条天皇). قام هذا الأخیر بحرکة جدیدة لیعلن من خلالها استقلاله. بدأ العهد الجدید مع تولی ابنه الإمبراطور شیراکاوا (白河天皇) الذی حکم منذ 1072 م.، سمی العهد الجدید عهد الأباطرة المنعزلین. قام الأخیر بالتنحی لصالح ابنه الإمبراطور هوریکاوا (堀川天皇) سنة 1086 م. مع قیامه بدور الوصایة علیه.
فی نفس هذه الفترة بدأت طبقة جدیدة من الرجال المحاربین فی البروز. کان هذا فی المقاطعات الأخرى من البلاد، والبعیدة عن الحکم المرکزی، وحیث کانت أولویات حکام هذه المقاطعات مغایرة لما یراه رجال البلاط الإمبراطوری. أنشأ هؤلاء الحکام من حولهم طبقة خاصة من المحاربین عرفوا باسم بوشی (武士) (التسمیة الشائعة هی سامورای (侍)، إلا أن هذا خطأ تاریخی فالتسمیة الثانیة لم تعمم إلا فی فترة إیدو اللاحقة). کانت هذه الطبقة الجدیدة فی خدمة أصحاب الأراضی وحکام المقاطعات الذین بقوا فی العاصمة الإمبراطوریة. کانت مهامهم تنحصر فی حمایة وإدارة ممتلکات کبار الملاک. ثم بدءوا فی تنظیم أنفسهم وتشکیل تجمعات أو عشائر. إحدى أهم هذه العشائر عرفت باسم الـتائیرا (平)، کانت هذه الطائفة من المحاربین تتمتع بحمایة الأباطرة المنعزلین. اکتسبت هذه الطائفة سمعة کبیرة فی البلاد بعد إحکام سیطرتها على مناطق جنوب غرب البلاد حول البحر الداخلی. ثانی هذه الطوائف کانت الـمیناموتو (源) والذین تمتعوا بدورهم بحمایة الـفوجی-وارا ثم سیطروا بدورهم على مناطق السهول حول کانتو.
فی عام 1156 م. حصل الانشقاق بین الأخوین فوجی-وارا: تادامیشی ویوریناغا. بدأ الصراع على السلطة بعد وفاة الإمبراطور توبا (鳥羽天皇). کان الإمبراطور السابق سوتوکو (1119-1164 م.) من جهة وابن الإمبراطور توبا، والذی عرف باسم غو شیراکاوا (後白河天皇) من جهة أخرى، طرفی الصراع القائم على العرش. تحالف کل من سوتوکو مع یوریناغا من الـالفوجی-وارا وتامه- یوشی من الـمیناموتو ضد حلف مشکل من غو شیراکاوا (ابن الإمبراطور)، تادامیشی من الـفوجی-وارا، ثم انضاف إلیهم کل من عشیرة الـتائیرا یقودها کییوموری وأخرى من عشیرة الـمیناموتو یقودها یوشی-تومو (源 義朝) -هو نفسه ابن تامه-یوشی من الـمیناموتو حلیف سوتوکو-. انتهت الحروب الطاحنة بین الطائفتین أو ماعرف لاحقا بـاضطربات عهد هوجن بانسحاب سوتوکو من الساحة وتنصیب شیراکاوا (أو غو-شیراکاوا). إلا أن الأخیر وفی غمرة النشوة بالنصر تناسى حلفاءه وبالأخص یوشی-تومو من الـمیناموتو. عواقب هذا الجفاء کانت سریعة. یقوم یوشی-تومو سنة 1159 م. بتدبیر انقلاب ویخلع الإمبراطور. عرفت هذه الفترة باسم اضطرابات عهد هه-ئیجی. إلا أنه سرعان ما عاد الوضع لینقلب من جدید مع تدخل کییوموری وتصفیته لقادة الانقلاب وبالأخص یوشی-تومو من الـمیناموتو وأفراد عائلته. الناجیان الوحیدان من المذبحة کانا ابنا السابق، میناموتو نو یوریتومو (源頼朝) ومیناموتو نو یوشی-تسونه.
[عدل]هیمنة التائیرا

بسطت عشیرة الـتائیرا هیمنتها على البلاد. أخذ أحد رجال هذه العشیرة ،هو تائیرا نو کییوموری یستحوذ على المناصب العلیا فی البلاط، ماشیا فی ذالک على سیرة الـفوجی-وارا، ثم بدأ بتوزیع المناصب على أفراد عائلته وزوج إحدى بناته من أحد الأمراء، والذی أصبح أحد أبناءه، أنتوکو إمبراطورا سنة 1180م.
فی نفس السنة کان میناموتو نو یوریتومو (源頼朝) قد اتخذ من کاماکورا (鎌倉) فی شرق البلاد مقرا رئیسا له، وبعدما استقرت به الأحوال أخذ هذا الأخیر یبحث عن الذرائع للاستیلاء على العاصمة الإمبراطوریة (کیوتو). فاستغل فرصة قیام أحد أقرباءه یوشی-ناکا بثورة، لیبدأ حملة جدیدة من المناوشات. إلا أن الحملة لم تأتی بجدید. کان علیه الانتظار حتى سنة 1183 م. حینما هاجم یوشی-ناکا العاصمة من جدید، فجمع یوریتومو العدة وجهز حملة بقیادة أخیه میناموتو نو یوشی-تسونه. تمکن هذا الأخیر من إنقاذ الإمبراطور غو شیراکاوا (後白河天皇). إلا أن المعارک لم تهدأ وبدأت حملات مطاردة ضد طائفة الـتائیرا إلى الغرب من البلاد. کان معرکة دان نو أورا فاصلة، تم بعدها القضاء نهائیا على هذه الطائفة. یعتبر المؤرخون هذا الحدث نهایة الحقبة القدیمة من التاریخ الیابانی وبدایة حقبة العصور الوسطى.
[عدل]مصادر

تاریخ الیابان
بوابة الیابان
تصنیفات: فترة هییآنتاریخ الیابان فترات الیابان

قس انگلیسی

The Heian period (平安時代 Heian jidai?) is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185.[1] The period is named after the capital city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism and other Chinese influences were at their height. The Heian period is also considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court and noted for its art, especially poetry and literature. Although the Imperial House of Japan had power on the surface, the real power was in the hands of the Fujiwara clan, a powerful aristocratic family who had intermarried with the imperial family. Many emperors actually had mothers from the Fujiwara family.[2] Heian (平安?) means "peace and tranquility" in Japanese.
Contents [show]
[edit]History

The Heian period was preceded by the Nara period and began in 794 after the movement of the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (present day Kyōto), by the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu.[3] It is considered a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is also noted for the rise of the samurai class, which would eventually take power and start the feudal period of Japan.
Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in fact power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara and other noble families required guards, police and soldiers. The warrior class made steady gains throughout the Heian period.[2] As early as 939, Taira no Masakado threatened the authority of the central government, leading an uprising in the eastern province of Hitachi, and almost simultaneously, Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west. Still, military takeover was centuries away, when much of the strength of the government would lie within the private armies of the shogunate.
The entry of the warrior class into court influence was a result of the Hōgen Rebellion. At this time Taira no Kiyomori revived the Fujiwara practices by placing his grandson on the throne to rule Japan by regency. Their clan (Taira clan) would not be overthrown until after the Gempei War, which marked the start of the shogunate. The Kamakura period began in 1185 when Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the emperors and established a bakufu, the Kamakura shogunate, in Kamakura.
[edit]Fujiwara regency


Byōdō-in Phoenix Hall, built in the 11th century during the Heian period of Japan.
When Emperor Kammu moved the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyōto), which remained the imperial capital for the next 1,000 years, he did so not only to strengthen imperial authority but also to improve his seat of government geopolitically. Nara was abandoned after only 70 years in part due to the ascendancy of Dōkyō and the encroaching secular power of the Buddhist institutions there.[4] Kyōto had good river access to the sea and could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period (784–967) continued Nara culture; the Heian capital was patterned on the Chinese Tang capital at Chang'an,[5] as was Nara, but on a larger scale than Nara. Kammu endeavoured to improve the Tang-style administrative system which was in use.[6] Known as the ritsuryō, this system attempted to recreate the Tang imperium in Japan, despite the "tremendous differences in the levels of development between the two countries".[7] Despite the decline of the Taika-Taihō reforms, imperial government was vigorous during the early Heian period. Indeed, Kammu's avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japan's most forceful emperors.
Although Kammu had abandoned universal conscription in 792, he still waged major military offensives to subjugate the Emishi, possible descendants of the displaced Jōmon, living in northern and eastern Japan. After making temporary gains in 794, in 797 Kammu appointed a new commander under the title Seii Taishogun. By 801 the shogun had defeated the Emishi and had extended the imperial domains to the eastern end of Honshū. Imperial control over the provinces was tenuous at best, however. In the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese-style land and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyōto. Stability came to Heian Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara which also helped Japan develop more.


A handscroll painting dated circa 1130, illustrating a scene from the "Bamboo River" chapter of the Tale of Genji.
Following Kammu's death in 806 and a succession struggle among his sons, two new offices were established in an effort to adjust the Taika-Taihō administrative structure. Through the new Emperor's Private Office, the emperor could issue administrative edicts more directly and with more self-assurance than before. The new Metropolitan Police Board replaced the largely ceremonial imperial guard units. While these two offices strengthened the emperor's position temporarily, soon they and other Chinese-style structures were bypassed in the developing state. Chinese influence effectively ended with the last imperial-sanctioned mission to Tang China in 838. Tang China was in a state of decline, and Chinese Buddhists were severely persecuted, undermining Japanese respect for Chinese institutions. Japan began to turn inward.
As the Soga had taken control of the throne in the sixth century, the Fujiwara by the ninth century had intermarried with the imperial family, and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office. Another Fujiwara became regent, Sesshō for his grandson, then a minor emperor, and yet another was appointed Kampaku. Toward the end of the ninth century, several emperors tried, but failed, to check the Fujiwara. For a time, however, during the reign of Emperor Daigo (897-930), the Fujiwara regency was suspended as he ruled directly.
Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger shōen and greater wealth during the early tenth century. By the early Heian period, the shōen had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the shōen they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform.


Drawing of Fujiwara no Michinaga, by Kikuchi Yōsai.
Within decades of Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court. By the year 1000, Fujiwara no Michinaga was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional officialdom, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara family's private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called "hereditary dictators."
Despite their usurpation of imperial authority, the Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and vernacular literature. Japanese writing had long depended on kanji, but these were now supplemented by kana, two types of phonetic Japanese script: katakana, a mnemonic device using parts of Chinese ideograms; and hiragana, a cursive syllabary with a distinct writing method that was uniquely Japanese. Hiragana gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late tenth century and early eleventh century women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in Kagerō Nikki by "the mother of Fujiwara Michitsuna", Makura no sōshi by Sei Shōnagon and Genji Monogatari by Murasaki Shikibu. Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored yamato-e Japanese style paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid- and late Heian periods, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day.
As culture flourished, so did decentralization. Whereas the first phase of shōen development in the early Heian period had seen the opening of new lands and the granting of the use of lands to aristocrats and religious institutions, the second phase saw the growth of patrimonial "house governments," as in the old clan system. (In fact, the form of the old clan system had remained largely intact within the great old centralized government.) New institutions were now needed in the face of social, economic, and political changes. The Taihō Code lapsed, its institutions relegated to ceremonial functions. Family administrations now became public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family. Land management became the primary occupation of the aristocracy, not so much because direct control by the imperial family or central government had declined but more from strong family solidarity and a lack of a sense of Japan as a single nation.
[edit]Rise of the military class
Under the early courts, when military conscription had been centrally controlled, military affairs had been taken out of the hands of the provincial aristocracy. But as the system broke down after 792, local power holders again became the primary source of military strength. Shōen holders had access to manpower and, as they obtained improved military technology (such as new training methods, more powerful bows, armor, horses, and superior swords) and faced worsening local conditions in the ninth century, military service became part of shōen life. Not only the shōen but also civil and religious institutions formed private guard units to protect themselves. Gradually, the provincial upper class was transformed into a new military elite based on the ideals of the bushi (warrior) or samurai (literally, one who serves).
Bushi interests were diverse, cutting across old power structures to form new associations in the tenth century. Mutual interests, family connections, and kinship were consolidated in military groups that became part of family administration. In time, large regional military families formed around members of the court aristocracy who had become prominent provincial figures. These military families gained prestige from connections to the imperial court and court-granted military titles and access to manpower. The Fujiwara family, Taira clan, and Minamoto clan were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class.
A decline in food production, the growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh centuries. Members of the Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto families—all of whom had descended from the imperial family—attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally upset the peace.
The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjō (1068-1073), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Go-Sanjo, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate estate records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many shōen were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Go-Sanjo also established the Incho, or Office of the Cloistered Emperor, which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or insei.
The Incho filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto family. While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of the Incho and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government.


Painting of the Battle of Dan-no-ura on April 25, 1185, Genpei War.
A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power. Fujiwara no Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1156 against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto (Hōgen Rebellion). In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the insei system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. In 1159, the Taira and Minamoto clashed (Heiji Rebellion), and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began. The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces. Finally, Minamoto no Yoritomo rose from his headquarters in the Kantō region to defeat the Taira, and with them the child emperor under Taira control, Emperor Antoku, in the Genpei War.
[edit]Heian culture

[edit]Developments in Buddhism


Danjogaran of Mount Kōya. The place is a center of the sacred ground of Shingon.


Bodhisattva Fugen Enmei, 12th century painting on silk, late Heian period.
Buddhism began to spread throughout Japan during the Heian period, primarily through two major esoteric sects, Tendai and Shingon. Tendai originated in China and is based on the Lotus Sutra, one of the most important sutras of Mahayana Buddhism; Saichō was key to its transmission to Japan. Shingon is the Japanese transmission of the Chinese Chen Yen school. Shingon, brought to Japan by the monk Kūkai, emphasizes Esoteric Buddhism. Both Kūkai and Saichō aimed to connect state and religion and establish support from the aristocracy,[8] leading to the notion of 'aristocratic Buddhism'.[9] An important element of Tendai doctrine was the suggestion that enlightenment was accessible to "every creature".[10] Saichō also sought independent ordination for Tendai monks.[11] A close relationship developed between the Tendai monastery complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain. As a result, Tendai emphasized great reverence for the emperor and the nation. Kammu himself was a notable patron of the otherworldly Tendai sect, which rose to great power over the ensuing centuries. Kūkai greatly impressed the emperors who succeeded Emperor Kammu, and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. Shingon, through its use of "rich symbols, rituals and mandalas"[12] held a wide-ranging appeal.
[edit]Literature
Although written Chinese (Kanbun) remained the official language of the Heian period imperial court, the introduction and wide use of kana saw a boom in Japanese literature. Despite the establishment of several new literary genres such as the novel and narrative monogatari (物語) and essays, literacy was only common among the court and Buddhist clergy.
The lyrics of the modern Japanese national anthem, Kimi ga Yo, were written in the Heian period, as was The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, one of the first novels ever written. Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival Sei Shōnagon's revealing observations and musings as an attendant in the Empress' court were recorded collectively as The Pillow Book in the 990s, which revealed the quotidian capital lifestyle.[13] The Heian period produced a flowering of poetry including works of Ariwara no Narihira, Ono no Komachi, Izumi Shikibu, Murasaki Shikibu, Saigyō and Fujiwara no Teika. The famous Japanese poem known as the Iroha (いろは), of uncertain authorship, was also written during the Heian period.
[edit]Beauty
During the Heian period, beauty was widely considered an important part of what made one a "good" person. In cosmetic terms, aristocratic men and women powdered their faces and blackened their teeth, the latter termed ohaguro. The male courtly ideal included a faint moustache and thin goatee, while women's mouths were painted small and red, and their eyebrows were plucked or shaved and redrawn higher on the forehead.
Women cultivated shiny, black flowing hair and a courtly woman's formal dress included a complex "twelve-layered robe" called jūnihitoe, though the actual number of layers varied. Costumes were determined by office and season, with a women's robes in particular following a system of color combinations representing flowers, plants, and animals specific to a season or month, (see the Japanese Wikipedia entries irome and kasane-no-irome).
[edit]Economics

While on one hand the Heian period was indeed an unusually long period of peace, it can also be argued that the period weakened Japan economically and led to poverty for all but a tiny few of its inhabitants.[citation needed] The control of rice fields provided a key source of income for families such as the Fujiwara and were a fundamental base for their power.[14] The aristocratic beneficiaries of Heian culture, the Yokibito ("Good People") numbered about five thousand in a land of perhaps five million. One reason the samurai were able to take power was that the ruling nobility proved incompetent at managing Japan and its provinces. By the year 1000 the government no longer knew how to issue currency and money was gradually disappearing. Instead of a fully realised system of money circulation, rice was the primary unit of exchange.[14] The lack of a solid medium of economic exchange is implicitly illustrated in novels of the time. For instance, messengers were rewarded with useful objects, e.g. an old silk kimono, rather than paid a fee. The Fujiwara rulers also failed to maintain adequate police forces, which left robbers free to prey on travellers. This is again implicitly illustrated in novels by the terror that night travel inspired in the main characters. The shōen system enabled the accumulation of wealth by an aristocratic elite; the economic surplus can be linked to the cultural developments of the Heian period and the "pursuit of arts".[15] The major Buddhist temples in Heian-kyō and Nara also made use of the shōen.[16] The establishment of branches rurally and integration of some Shinto shrines within these temple networks reflects a greater "organizational dynamism".[16]
[edit]Events

784: Emperor Kammu moves the capital to Nagaoka-kyō (Kyōto)
794: Emperor Kammu moves the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyōto)
804: The Buddhist monk Saichō (Dengyo Daishi) introduces the Tendai school
806: The monk Kūkai (Kōbō-Daishi) introduces the Shingon (Tantric) school
819: Kūkai founds the monastery of Mount Kōya, in the northeast portion of modern day Wakayama Prefecture
858: Emperor Seiwa begins the rule of the Fujiwara clan
895: Sugawara Michizane halted the imperial embassies to China
990: Sei Shōnagon writes the Pillow Book essays
1000-1008: Murasaki Shikibu writes The Tale of Genji novel
1050: Rise of the military class (samurai)
1053: The Byōdō-in temple (near Kyōto) is inaugurated by emperor Fujiwara Yorimichi
1068: Emperor Go-Sanjo overthrows the Fujiwara clan
1087: Emperor Shirakawa abdicates and becomes a Buddhist monk, the first of the "cloistered emperors" (insei)
1156: Taira Kiyomori defeats the Minamoto clan and seizes power, thereby ending the "insei" era
1180 (June): Emperor Antoku moves the capital to Fukuhara-kyō (Kobe)
1180 (November): Emperor Antoku moves the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyōto)
1185: Taira is defeated (Gempei War) and Minamoto Yoritomo with the support (backing) of the Hōjō clan seizes power, becoming the first shogun of Japan, while the emperor (or "mikado") becomes a figurehead
1191: Rinzai Zen Buddhism is introduced in Japan by the monk Eisai of Kamakura and becomes popular among the samurai, the leading class in Japanese society
[edit]Current depictions

The iconography of the Heian period is widely known in Japan, and depicted in various media, from traditional festivals to anime.
Various festivals feature Heian dress – most notably Hinamatsuri (doll festival), where the dolls wear Heian dress, but also numerous other festivals, such as Aoi Matsuri in Kyoto (May) and Saiō Matsuri in Meiwa, Mie (June), both of which feature the jūnihitoe 12-layer dress. Traditional horseback archery (yabusame) festivals, which date from the beginning of the Kamakura period (immediately following the Heian period) feature similar dress.
[edit]Literature
The two-volume historical novel saga White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Fox Sorceress (2009),[17] and White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Storm God (2011)[18] depict in detail the pivotal years 1160–1185 in Japan, as seen through the eyes of protagonist Seiko Fujiwara. Both books were written by Cerridwen Fallingstar.
[edit]References

^ "Heian period". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
^ a b F.W. Seal, Heian Period Court and Clan
^ Shively and McCullough 1999.
^ Hurst 2007 p. 32
^ Takei, Jirō; Keane, Marc P. (2001). The Sakuteiki, vision of the Japanese garden: A modern translation of Japan's gardening classic. Boston: Tuttle Publishing. pp. 10. ISBN 978-0-8048-3294-6.
^ Hurst 2007 p. 34
^ Hurst 2007 p. 35
^ Kitagawa 1966 p. 59
^ Weinstein 1999
^ Kitagawa 1966 p. 60
^ Kitagawa p. 61.
^ Kitagawa 1966 p. 65.
^ Morris (1964) p. xiv.
^ a b Morris 1964 p.73.
^ Morris 1964 p.79.
^ a b Collins 1997 p.851.
^ Fallingstar, Cerridwen. White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Fox Sorceress. Cauldron Publications, 2009.
^ Fallingstar, Cerridwen. White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Storm God. Cauldron Publications, 2011.
[edit]Sources

Collins, R., 'An Asian Route to Capitalism: Religious Economy and the Origins of Self-Transforming Growth in Japan', in American Sociological Review, Vol. 62, No. 6 (1997)
Hurst III, G. C, 'The Heian Period' in W. M. Tsutsui, (ed.), A Companion to Japanese History (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007)
Kitagawa, J., Religion in Japanese History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966)
Morris, I., The World of the Shining Prince; Court Life in Ancient Japan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964)
Shively, D. H. and McCullough W. H., 'Introduction' in D. H. Shively and W. H. McCullough, (eds.),The Cambridge History of Modern Japan; Volume 2, Heian Japan, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
Weinstein, S., 'Aristocratic Buddhism' in D. H. Shively and W. H. McCullough, (eds.),The Cambridge History of Modern Japan; Volume 2, Heian Japan, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
[edit]External links

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Heian art at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art
Heian art and calligraphy at the Tokyo National Museum
Heian art at the British Museum
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