سوخت فسیلی سوخت سنگواره ای نفت گاز زغال سنگ

سوخت فسیلی (به انگلیسی: Fossil fuel)‏ به سوخت‌هایی اطلاق می‌شود که از سنگواره‌ها بدست می‌آید.سوخت‌های فسیلی به سه نوع اصلی تقسیم می‌شوند:
ذغال سنگ
نفت
گاز طبیعی
این سوخت‌ها دارای یک ویژگی مشترک هستند و آن قدمت بسیار بالای آنها می‌باشد.آنها صدها میلیون سال قبل و پیش از حضور دایناسور‌ها در جهان بوجود آمده اند.
منبع [ویرایش]

Wikipedia contributors, "Fossil fuel," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil_fuel&oldid=192964526 (accessed March 3, 2008).
این یک نوشتار خُرد است. با گسترش آن به ویکی‌پدیا کمک کنید.
[نمایش]
ن • ب • و
گرم‌شدن زمین و تغییر اقلیم
رده‌ها: سوخت‌های فسیلی ا قتصاد انرژی

قس عربی

الوقود الأحفوری هو وقود یتم استعماله لإنتاج الطاقة الأحفوریة. ویستخرج الوقود الأحفوری من المواد الأحفوریة کالفحم الحجری ،الفحم النفطی الأسود، الغاز الطبیعی، ومن البترول.
و تستخرج هذه المواد بدورها من باطن الأرض وتحترق فی الهواء مع الأکسجین لإنتاج حرارة تستخدم فی کافة المیادین.
یعتمد ترکیب الوقود الأحفوری على دورة الکربون فی الطبیعة، وبهذا یتم تخزین الطاقة(الشمسیة) عبر العصور القدیمة لیتم الیوم استخدام هذه الطاقة. حسب التقدیرات العالمیة[1] ستغطی المصادر الأحفوریة فی عام 2030 حوالی 90% من الحاجة العالمیة للطاقة. فی عام 2005 بلغت هذه النسبة 81%
أما الکتلة الحیویة فهی تستخرج من الخشب ومن فضلات عضویة مختلفة.
و قد قامت الثورة الصناعیة فی القرنین الثامن والتاسع عشر تزامنا مع استعمال الطاقة الأحفوریة فی المجال التقنی، وخاصة الفحم الحجری فی ذاک الوقت. أما فی یومنا هذا، فیلعب النفط الخام الدور الأکبر فی تلبیة احتیاجات الطاقة نظرا لسهولة استخراجه ومعالجته ونقله، مما یجعله أزهد ثمنا.
و کما سبق، تعتمد مواد الاحتراق الأحفوریة على مرکبات عنصر الکربون. عند احتراق الکربون مع غاز الأکسجین تنبعث طاقة على شکل حرارة إضافة إلى انبعاث غاز ثانی أکسید الکربون ومواد کیمیائیة أخرى کأکسید النیتروجین والسُّخام وکمیات من الجسیمات.
محتویات [أخف]
1 الاحتیاطات
2 النفط والغاز الطبیعی
3 الخث والفحم
4 عوامل توافر الطاقة الأحفوریة
5 حسنات وسیئات الطاقة الأحفوریة
6 مراجع
7 مصادر
[عدل]الاحتیاطات

استنادا إلى الأسالیب الحالیة المتبعة لتقدیر احتیاطات الوقود الأحفوری التی یمکن استخراجها بشکل ذو مردود مادّی، یبلغ أمد استخدام الفحم الحجری 150 عاما، والغاز 60 عاما، والنفط الخام حوالی 40 عاما، مع اعتبارنا أن کمیة الاستهلاک للطاقة بقیت ثابتة. (مدى ثابت لتقدیر الاحتیاط النفطی)
و بلغ المدى الثابت للاحتیاطات النفطیة فی عام 1919 حوالی 20 سنة فقط. بینما یصل الیوم إلى 35-40 سنة، وذلک نظرا إلى الإیجاد المستمر لإحتیاطات جدیدة، وبفضل طرق وأسالیب جدیدة ومحسّنة تسهّل الیوم استخراج الوقود عما کانت علیه فی أوائل القرن العشرین.
المتوقع فی العقود القادمة وصول احتیاج الطاقة لذروته، مما سیرفع ذروة إنتاج النفط (انظر ذروة إنتاج نفط). وبهذا یتوقع أن ینخفض حجم الإنتاج النفطی, مما یعنی أن هذه الثغرة فی الإمداد یجب أن یتم سدها عبر استهلاک أقل للطاقة، وباستخدام طاقات بدیلة کالطاقة المتجددة مثلا، بحیث یتم الاستغناء شیئا فشیئا عن الوقود الأحفوری کمصدر رئیسی للطاقة.
[عدل]النفط والغاز الطبیعی

ماتت المخلوقات العضویة وإستقرّت فی قاع المحیطات وسط طبقة من الرسوبیات دون أن یدخل الهواء إلیها. وغطتها طبقات أرضیة أخرى، حتى تکوّنت فوق هذه المواد العضویة وبفعل مر السنین (حوالی 500 ملیون سنة) طبقة عازلة.
و مع عدم وجود الأکسجین فککت البکتیریا هذه المواد العضویة إلى مکونات کیمیائیة أبسط ترکیبا. وبفعل الضغط والحرارة، تکوّنت المرکبات الهیدروکربونیة.
أما الماء الذی بقى، فتبخّر أو ترسّب. فترتفع عندئذ هذه المواد الهیدروکربونیة التی تکون أخف وزنا من الطبقات الأرضیة أو الحجریة التی فوقها، لتستقر أخیرا تحت الطبقات الجیولوجیة التی تمنع ارتفاعها المستمر هذا.
أما القسم الغازی من هذه المواد وهو الغاز الطبیعی، فیطفو بدوره على الجزء السائل منه (النفط السائل).
[عدل]الخث والفحم

تولّد الفحم من بقایا النباتات التی انقطع عنها الهواء - مثلا فی المستنفعات - والتی لم تتمکن من التحلل وتعرضت لاحقا لضغط کبیر وحرارة خارجیة. أما الماء والشوائب، فقد تطایرت مع الوقت لیکون الخث والفحم بدرجات مختلفة من حیث الخلیط والنقاوة والکثافة.
یعتبر الفحم الحجری أکثر أنواع الفحم قیمة وذلک لنقاوته العالیة وکثافته الکبیرة، مما یعنی أنه یتکون من عنصر الکربون بشکل أساسی. وبهذه المواصفات یمتلک الفحم الحجری على قدرة احتراق و(سعرات حراریة) عالیة القیمة.
أما اللّیجنیت وهو من أنواع الفحم الحجری، فهو بنی اللون، ویعتبر أقل جودة نظرا لکثافته الأقل ولوجود شوائب من الکبریت فیه. وتکون قدرته الحراریة أقل منها للفحم الحجری الصافی.
[عدل]عوامل توافر الطاقة الأحفوریة

حجم الاحتیاط
فعالیة استخدام الطاقة
مجال الاستهلاک
بعدها عن الطاقات المتجددة
المصطلح المقابل للطاقة الأحفوریة هو الطاقة المتجددة، حیث أن الطاقة المتجددة لا تنضب خلال فترة طویلة من الزمن عند استعمالها، کالطاقة الشمسیة والطاقة الریحیة والطاقة المائیة، بل تتجدد باستمرار. بینما الطاقة الإحفوریة تفقد قدرتها على تولید الطاقة حالما احترقت، وبهذا تکون غیر متجددة. مؤنس الحنون
[عدل]حسنات وسیئات الطاقة الأحفوریة

یتمیز الوقود الإحفوری بامتلاکه کثافة طاقة عالیة وبسهولة نقله وتخزینه. و بمعالجة الوقود الأحفوری بتروکیمیائیا، یمکن الاستحصال على أنواع مختلفة منه، وخاصة من الوقود الأحفوریة السائلة والغازیة، حیث یتم استخراج وقود منها وذلک للاستعمالات المختلفة فی المحرکات والطائرات والسفن بعد المعالجة البتروکیمیائیة اللازمة.
من سیئات استخدام الطاقة الأحفوریة هو احتراق الوقود الأحفوریة الذی یعدّ من العوامل الرئیسیة لتلوث الهواء والتسبب فی الاحتباس الحراری الناتج بدوره عن غازات تغلّف المجال الجوی وتمنع الانعکاس الحراری الصادر من الأرض من انتقاله إلى خارج الکوکب، مما یسبب ارتفاعا فی درجات حرارة الأرض، ویزید التصحر والجفاف.
[عدل]مراجع

^ التقریر السنوی عن الفحم الحجری 2007, صفحة 50
[عدل]مصادر

التقریر السنوی للجمعیة الألمانیة للفحم الحجری http://www.gvst.de/site/steinkohle/pdf/2007_Annual_Report.pdf
تصنیفات: اقتصادیات الطاقةنفططاقةوقود أحفوری

قس ترکی آذری

Qalıq yanacaqlar- mineral yanacaqlar olaraq da bilinər, hidrokarbon ehtiva edən kömür, neft və təbii qaz kimi təbii enerji qaynaqlarıdır. Qalıq yanacaqlar sənaye sahədə çox geniş bir istifadə sahəsi tapmaqdadır.
Elektrik istehsalında, ümumiyyətlə qalıq yanacağın yanması ilə ortaya çıxan enerji bir turbinə güc olaraq çatdırılar. Köhnə generatorlarda ümumiyyətlə yanacağın yanması ilə əldə edilən buxar turbini çevirmək üçün istifadə edilərdi, lakin yeni enerji stansiyalarında yanma ilə əldə edilən qazlar, birbaşa olaraq qaz turbinini çevirməkdədir.
20 və 21. əsrdə dünya səviyyəsindəki texnoloji inkişaflarla, qalıq yanacaqlardan əldə edilən enerjiyə olan ehtiyac artmaqdadır. Xüsusilə neftdən əldə edilən benzin, dünya səviyyəsində və regional olaraq böyük qarşıdurmaların ana səbəbi halına gəlməkdədir.
Kömür, neft və təbii qaz dünyanın bu günki enerji ehtiyacının cox hissəsini təmin edir. Strukturlarında karbon və hidrogen elementlərini saxlayan bu qalıq yanacaqlar, uzun müddətlər içərisində meydana gəlməkdə lakin çox tez istehlak edilməkdədir. Dünyanın müəyyən bölgələrində toplanmış bu yanacaqların günümüz texnologiyasıyla ¾'ünün yarısının çıxarılması qeyri-mümkün; digər yarısının isə çıxarılması texniki olaraq çox bahalıdır. Bu da qalıq yanacaqları yenilənə bilməyən və məhdud yanacaqlar sinifinə daxil edilir.[1]
[redaktə]Mənbə

↑ http://climate.didev.org/suni.html
Kateqoriyalar: KimyaGeologiya

قس ترکی استانبولی

Fosil yakıtlar, mineral yakıtlar olarak da bilinir. Hidrokarbon içeren kömür, petrol ve doğal gaz gibi doğal enerji kaynaklarıdır.Ölen canlı organizmaların oksijensiz ortamda milyonlarca yıl boyunca,çözülmesi ile oluşur. Fosil yakıtlar endüstriyel alanda çok geniş bir kullanım alanı bulmaktadır.
Elektrik üretiminde, genelde fosil yakıtın yanması ile açığa çıkan enerji bir türbine güç olarak iletilir. Eski jeneratörlerde genelde yakıtın yanması ile elde edilen buhar türbini döndürmek için kullanılırdı, fakat yeni enerji santrallerinde yanma ile elde edilen gazlar, direkt olarak gaz türbinini döndürmektedir.
20 ve 21. yüzyılda dünya çapındaki teknolojik gelişmelerle, fosil yakıtlardan elde edilen enerjiye olan ihtiyaç artmaktadır. Özellikle petrolden elde edilen benzin, dünya çapında ve bölgesel olarak büyük çatışmaların ana sebebi haline gelmektedir. Dünya çapındaki bu enerji ihtiyacının artması ile çözüm arayışları, yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarına doğru yönelmelidir.

[değiştir]Dış bağlantılar

Yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları
Yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları ve fosil yakıtlar
[değiştir]Kaynaklar

İngilizce Wikipedia Fosil yakıt maddesi
Kategoriler: Enerji ekonomisiFosil yakıtlar

قس انگلیسی

Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years.[1] Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum, and natural gas.[2] They range from volatile materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. Fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants[3] by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years.[4] This biogenic theory was first introduced by Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.

It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2007 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%, amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world.[5] Non-fossil sources in 2006 included hydroelectric 6.3%, nuclear 8.5%, and others (geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, waste) amounting to 0.9%.[6] World energy consumption was growing about 2.3% per year.

Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs.

The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).[7] Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects.

Contents [hide]
1 Origin
2 Importance
2.1 Reserves
3 Limits and alternatives
4 Environmental effects
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Origin



Since oil fields are located only at certain places on earth,[8] only a select group of countries are oil-independent, the other countries are dependent on the oil production capacities of these countries
Petroleum and natural gas are formed by the anaerobic decomposition of remains of organisms including phytoplankton and zooplankton that settled to the sea (or lake) bottom in large quantities under anoxic conditions, millions of years ago. Over geological time, this organic matter, mixed with mud, got buried under heavy layers of sediment. The resulting high levels of heat and pressure caused the organic matter to chemically alter, first into a waxy material known as kerogen which is found in oil shales, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis.

There is a wide range of organic, or hydrocarbon, compounds in any given fuel mixture. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic properties, such as boiling point, melting point, density, viscosity, etc. Some fuels like natural gas, for instance, contain only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline or diesel contain much higher boiling components.

Terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tend to form coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history. Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas.

Importance



A petrochemical refinery in Grangemouth, Scotland, UK
See also: Fossil fuel power plant
Fossil fuels are of great importance because they can be burned (oxidized to carbon dioxide and water), producing significant amounts of energy per unit weight. The use of coal as a fuel predates recorded history. Coal was used to run furnaces for the melting of metal ore. Semi-solid hydrocarbons from seeps were also burned in ancient times,[9] but these materials were mostly used for waterproofing and embalming.[10]

Commercial exploitation of petroleum, largely as a replacement for oils from animal sources (notably whale oil), for use in oil lamps began in the 19th century.[11]

Natural gas, once flared-off as an unneeded byproduct of petroleum production, is now considered a very valuable resource.[12]

Heavy crude oil, which is much more viscous than conventional crude oil, and tar sands, where bitumen is found mixed with sand and clay, are becoming more important as sources of fossil fuel.[13] Oil shale and similar materials are sedimentary rocks containing kerogen, a complex mixture of high-molecular weight organic compounds, which yield synthetic crude oil when heated (pyrolyzed). These materials have yet to be exploited commercially.[14] These fuels can be employed in internal combustion engines, fossil fuel power stations and other uses.

Prior to the latter half of the 18th century, windmills and watermills provided the energy needed for industry such as milling flour, sawing wood or pumping water, and burning wood or peat provided domestic heat. The widescale use of fossil fuels, coal at first and petroleum later, to fire steam engines enabled the Industrial Revolution. At the same time, gas lights using natural gas or coal gas were coming into wide use. The invention of the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles and trucks greatly increased the demand for gasoline and diesel oil, both made from fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation, railways and aircraft, also required fossil fuels. The other major use for fossil fuels is in generating electricity and as feedstock for the petrochemical industry. Tar, a leftover of petroleum extraction, is used in construction of roads.

Reserves


An oil well in the Gulf of Mexico
See also: Peak oil
Levels of primary energy sources are the reserves in the ground. Flows are production. The most important part of primary energy sources are the carbon based fossil energy sources. Coal, oil, and natural gas provided 79.6% of primary energy production during 2002 (in million tonnes of oil equivalent (mtoe)) (34.9+23.5+21.2).

Levels (proved reserves) during 2005–2006

Coal: 997,748 million short tonnes (905 billion metric tonnes),[15] 4,416 billion barrels (702.1 km3) of oil equivalent
Oil: 1,119 billion barrels (177.9 km3) to 1,317 billion barrels (209.4 km3)[16]
Natural gas: 6,183–6,381 trillion cubic feet (175–181 trillion cubic metres),[16] 1,161 billion barrels (184.6×109 m3) of oil equivalent
Flows (daily production) during 2006

Coal: 18,476,127 short tonnes (16,761,260 metric tonnes),[17] 52,000,000 barrels (8,300,000 m3) of oil equivalent per day
Oil: 84,000,000 barrels per day (13,400,000 m3/d)[18]
Natural gas: 104,435 billion cubic feet (2,963 billion cubic metres),[19] 19,000,000 barrels (3,000,000 m3) of oil equivalent per day
Years of production left in the ground with the current proved reserves and flows above

Coal: 148 years
Oil: 43 years
Natural gas: 61 years
Years of production left in the ground with the most optimistic proved reserve estimates (Oil & Gas Journal, World Oil)[citation needed]

Coal: 417 years
Oil: 43 years
Natural gas: 167 years
The calculation above assumes that the product could be produced at a constant level for that number of years and that all of the proved reserves could be recovered. In reality, consumption of all three resources has been increasing. While this suggests that the resource will be used up more quickly, in reality, the production curve is much more akin to a bell curve. At some point in time, the production of each resource within an area, country, or globally will reach a maximum value, after which, the production will decline until it reaches a point where is no longer economically feasible or physically possible to produce. See Hubbert peak theory for detail on this decline curve with regard to petroleum. Changes in technology, prices, or political policy are factors that can lead to significant deviations.

The above discussion emphasizes worldwide energy balance. It is also valuable to understand the ratio of reserves to annual consumption (R/C) by region or country. For example, energy policy of the United Kingdom recognizes that Europe's R/C value is 3.0, very low by world standards, and exposes that region to energy vulnerability. Alternatives to fossil fuels are a subject of intense debate worldwide.

Limits and alternatives

Main articles: Peak oil and Hubbert peak theory
The principle of supply and demand suggests that as hydrocarbon supplies diminish, prices will rise. Therefore higher prices will lead to increased alternative, renewable energy supplies as previously uneconomic sources become sufficiently economical to exploit. Artificial gasolines and other renewable energy sources currently require more expensive production and processing technologies than conventional petroleum reserves, but may become economically viable in the near future. See Energy development. Different alternative sources of energy include nuclear, hydroelectric, solar, wind, and geothermal.

Environmental effects



Global fossil carbon emission by fuel type, 1800–2007. Note: Carbon only represents 27% of the mass of CO2
Main article: Environmental issues with energy
The U.S. holds less than 5% of the world's population but, due to large houses and private cars, uses more than a quarter of the world's supply of fossil fuels.[20] In the United States, more than 90% of greenhouse gas emissions come from the combustion of fossil fuels.[21] Combustion of fossil fuels also produces other air pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, volatile organic compounds and heavy metals.

According to Environment Canada:

"The electricity sector is unique among industrial sectors in its very large contribution to emissions associated with nearly all air issues. Electricity generation produces a large share of Canadian nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide emissions, which contribute to smog and acid rain and the formation of fine particulate matter. It is the largest uncontrolled industrial source of mercury emissions in Canada. Fossil fuel-fired electric power plants also emit carbon dioxide, which may contribute to climate change. In addition, the sector has significant impacts on water and habitat and species. In particular, hydro dams and transmission lines have significant effects on water and biodiversity."[22]



Carbon dioxide variations over the last 400,000 years, showing a rise since the industrial revolution.
According to U.S. Scientist Jerry Mahlman and USA Today: Mahlman, who crafted the IPCC language used to define levels of scientific certainty, says the new report will lay the blame at the feet of fossil fuels with "virtual certainty," meaning 99% sure. That's a significant jump from "likely," or 66% sure, in the group's last report in 2001, Mahlman says. His role in this year's effort involved spending two months reviewing the more than 1,600 pages of research that went into the new assessment.[23]

Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric, carbonic, and nitric acids, which fall to Earth as acid rain, impacting both natural areas and the built environment. Monuments and sculptures made from marble and limestone are particularly vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium carbonate.

Fossil fuels also contain radioactive materials, mainly uranium and thorium, which are released into the atmosphere. In 2000, about 12,000 tonnes of thorium and 5,000 tonnes of uranium were released worldwide from burning coal.[24] It is estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile Island incident.[25]

Burning coal also generates large amounts of bottom ash and fly ash. These materials are used in a wide variety of applications, utilizing, for example, about 40% of the US production.[26]

Harvesting, processing, and distributing fossil fuels can also create environmental concerns. Coal mining methods, particularly mountaintop removal and strip mining, have negative environmental impacts, and offshore oil drilling poses a hazard to aquatic organisms. Oil refineries also have negative environmental impacts, including air and water pollution. Transportation of coal requires the use of diesel-powered locomotives, while crude oil is typically transported by tanker ships, each of which requires the combustion of additional fossil fuels.

Environmental regulation uses a variety of approaches to limit these emissions, such as command-and-control (which mandates the amount of pollution or the technology used), economic incentives, or voluntary programs.

An example of such regulation in the USA is the "EPA is implementing policies to reduce airborne mercury emissions. Under regulations issued in 2005, coal-fired power plants will need to reduce their emissions by 70 percent by 2018.".[27]

In economic terms, pollution from fossil fuels is regarded as a negative externality. Taxation is considered one way to make societal costs explicit, in order to 'internalize' the cost of pollution. This aims to make fossil fuels more expensive, thereby reducing their use and the amount of pollution associated with them, along with raising the funds necessary to counteract these factors.[citation needed]

According to Rodman D. Griffin, “The burning of coal and oil have saved inestimable amounts of time and labor while substantially raising living standards around the world”.[28] Although the use of fossil fuels may seem beneficial to our lives, this act is playing a role on global warming and it is said to be dangerous for the future.[28]

See also

Energy portal
Global warming portal
Abiogenic petroleum origin proposes that petroleum is not a fossil fuel
C. Arden Pope
Curbing fossil fuel usage
Fossil Fools Day
Fossil fuel drilling
Fossil fuel exporters
Carbon based fuel
Clinker (waste)
Oil reserves
Upstream and downstream
References

^ Paul Mann, Lisa Gahagan, and Mark B. Gordon, "Tectonic setting of the world's giant oil and gas fields," in Michel T. Halbouty (ed.) Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1990–1999, Tulsa, Okla.: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p.50, accessed 22 June 2009.
^ "Fossil fuel".
^ Dr. Irene Novaczek. "Canada's Fossil Fuel Dependency". Elements. Retrieved 2007-01-18.
^ "Fossil fuel". EPA. Archived from the original on March 12, 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-18.
^ "U.S. EIA International Energy Statistics". Retrieved 2010-01-12.
^ "International Energy Annual 2006". Retrieved 2009-02-08.
^ "US Department of Energy on greenhouse gases". Retrieved 2007-09-09.
^ Oil fields
^ "Encyclopædia Britannica, use of oil seeps in accient times". Retrieved 2007-09-09.
^ Bilkadi, Zayn (1992). "BULLS FROM THE SEA : Ancient Oil Industries". Aramco World. Archived from the original on 2007-11-13.
^ Ball, Max W.; Douglas Ball, Daniel S. Turner (1965). This Fascinating Oil Business. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. ISBN 0-672-50829-X.
^ Kaldany, Rashad, Director Oil, Gas, Mining and Chemicals Dept, World Bank (December 13, 2006). "Global Gas Flaring Reduction: A Time for Action!" (PDF). Global Forum on Flaring & Gas Utilization. Paris. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
^ "Oil Sands Global Market Potential 2007". Retrieved 2007-09-09.
^ "US Department of Energy plans for oil shale development". Archived from the original on August 13, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
^ World Estimated Recoverable Coal. eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
^ a b World Proved Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas, Most Recent Estimates. eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
^ Energy Information Administration. International Energy Annual 2006 (XLS file). October 17, 2008. eia.doe.gov
^ Energy Information Administration. World Petroleum Consumption, Annual Estimates, 1980–2008 (XLS file). October 6, 2009. eia.doe.gov
^ Energy Information Administration. International Energy Annual 2006 (XLS file). August 22, 2008. eia.doe.gov
^ "The State of Consumption Today". Worldwatch Institute. Retrieved March 30, 2012.
^ Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–1998, Rep. EPA 236-R-00-01. US EPA, Washington, DC
^ "Electricity Generation". Retrieved 2007-03-23.
^ O'Driscoll, Patrick; Vergano, Dan (2007-03-01). "Fossil fuels are to blame, world scientists conclude". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger – Alex Gabbard
^ Nuclear proliferation through coal burning – Gordon J. Aubrecht, II, Ohio State University
^ American Coal Ash Association. "CCP Production and Use Survey" (PDF).
^ "Frequently Asked Questions, Information on Proper Disposal of Compact Fluorescent Light Bulbs (CFLs)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-03-19.
^ a b Griffin, Rodman (10). Alternative Energy. 2. pp. 573–596.
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